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fun Return to the top

fun    /fʌn/ Show Spelled [fuhn] Show IPA noun, verb, funned, fun·ning, adjective –noun 1. something that provides mirth or amusement: A picnic would be fun. 2. enjoyment or playfulness: She's full of fun. –verb (used without object), verb (used with object) 3. Informal . joke; kid. –adjective 4. Informal . of or pertaining to fun, esp. to social fun: a fun thing to do; really a fun person. 5. Informal . whimsical; flamboyant: The fashions this year are definitely on the fun side. —Idioms 6. for / infun, as a joke; not seriously; playfully: His insults were only in fun. 7. like fun, Informal . certainly not; of doubtful truth: He told us that he finished the exam in an hour. Like fun he did! 8. make fun of, to make the object of ridicule; deride: The youngsters made fun of their teacher. Use fun in a Sentence See images of fun Search fun on the Web Origin: 1675–85; dial. var. of obs. fon to befool. See fond1 —Synonyms 1, 2. merriment, pleasure, play, gaiety. Dictionary.com Unabridged Based on the Random House Dictionary, © Random House, Inc. 2011. Cite This Source | Link To fun Explore the Visual Thesaurus » Related Words for : fun amusing, amusive, diverting, merriment, playfulness View more related words » Party at Dave & Busters Reserve a Party Room Today! Catering, Fun & Games for Any Event www.DaveandBusters.com Play Brain Games & Win Take a Break with Free Online Games Play Now & Win Real Prizes! Sponsored Results ClubBing.com World English Dictionary fun (fʌn) [Click for IPA pronunciation guide] — n 1. a source of enjoyment, amusement, diversion, etc 2. pleasure, gaiety, or merriment 3. jest or sport (esp in the phrases in or for fun ) 4. facetious , ironic fun and games amusement; frivolous activity 5. informal like fun a. ( adverb ) quickly; vigorously b. ( interjection ) not at all! certainly not! 6. make fun of , poke fun at to ridicule or deride 7. ( modifier ) full of amusement, diversion, gaiety, etc: a fun sport — vb , funs , funning , funned 8. informal ( intr ) to act in a joking or sporting manner [C17: perhaps from obsolete fon to make a fool of; see fond 1 ] Collins English Dictionary - Complete & Unabridged 10th Edition 2009 © William Collins Sons & Co. Ltd. 1979, 1986 © HarperCollins Publishers 1998, 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006, 2007, 2009 Cite This Source Word Origin & History fun 1680s, v., "to cheat, hoax," probably a variant of M.E. fon "befool" (c.1400), later "trick, hoax, practical joke," of uncertain origin. Stigmatized by Johnson as "a low cant word." Older sense is preserved in phrase to make fun of and funny money "counterfeit bills" (1938, though this may be more for the sake of the rhyme); sense of "amusement" is 1727. See also funny. Online Etymology Dictionary, © 2010 Douglas Harper Cite This Source Slang Dictionary fun definition 1. mod. pleasant; entertaining. : We had a real fun time. Dictionary of American Slang and Colloquial Expressions by Richard A. Spears.Fourth Edition. Copyright 2007. Published by McGraw Hill. Cite This Source Computing Dictionary Fun definition A typed lambda-calculus, similar to SOL[2]. "On Understanding Types, Data Abstractions and Polymorphism", L. Cardelli et al, ACM Comp Surveys 17(4) (Dec 1985). The Free On-line Dictionary of Computing, © Denis Howe 2010 http://foldoc.org Cite This Source Idioms & Phrases fun In addition to the idiom beginning with fun, also see for fun; like fun; make fun of; more fun than a barrel of monkeys. Also see under funny. The American Heritage® Dictionary of Idioms by Christine Ammer. Copyright © 1997. Published by Houghton Mifflin. Cite This Source Famous Quotations fun "Henry B. Adams was the first in an infinite series to d..." "Girls are so queer you never know what they mean. They ..." "In full view of his television audience, he preached a ..." "There is nothing like the fun of having brothers, ..." "Those who live near the temple make fun of the gods." More Quotes

There is a page named "Fun" on Wikipedia For search help, please visit Help:Searching. * SpongeBob SquarePants (season 1) (redirect from F.U.N.) Culture Shock / F.U.N.: Title Culture Shock | Episode 10a http://spongebob. nick. com/videos/play/culture-shock-fun-full-episode | Season 1 | ... 64 KB (9,699 words) - 23:21, 5 January 2011 * Cedar Fair Entertainment Company (redirect from FUN) Cedar Fair Entertainment Company, legally known as Cedar Fair, L.P.,(FUN) is a publicly traded partnership, based in Sandusky , Ohio , USA ... 10 KB (1,210 words) - 03:29, 5 January 2011 * Fun familiar to everybody at a glance right down to the animal level Fun may be encountered in many human activities during work, social ... 2 KB (242 words) - 23:31, 4 January 2011 * Fun (band) (redirect from Fun.) Fun (often written as fun.) is an American power pop band based in New York, New York that was formed by Nate Ruess, formerly of The ... 9 KB (1,294 words) - 08:43, 3 January 2011 * Fun? Fun? is the second album from the British rock band The Candyskins . It contains their hit single "Wembly". painting 'No Fun' on the wall ... 5 KB (797 words) - 02:02, 9 December 2010 * Fun (magazine) Fun was a Victorian weekly magazine , first published on 21 September 1861 The magazine was founded by the actor and playwright H. J. ... 5 KB (688 words) - 19:19, 26 December 2010 * Recreation human biology and psychology Recreational activities are often done for enjoyment , amusement , or pleasure and are considered to be "fun ". ... 10 KB (1,307 words) - 07:15, 3 January 2011 * Novelty song Satirists such as Stan Freberg and Tom Lehrer used novelty songs to poke fun at contemporary pop culture in the early 1950s. ... 21 KB (2,198 words) - 07:43, 27 December 2010 * Kitesurfing Kitesurfing or Kiteboarding is a surface water sport that uses the wind to pull a rider through the water on a small surfboard or a ... 50 KB (7,816 words) - 12:26, 1 January 2011 * Fun (film) Fun is a 1994 independent drama film starring Alicia Witt and Renée Humphrey , directed by Rafal Zielinski. Both Witt and Humphrey won ... 2 KB (285 words) - 08:58, 20 August 2010 * Chevrolet Celta (redirect from Suzuki Fun) The Chevrolet Celta (Suzuki Fun in Argentina ) is a low cost supermini produced by General Motors do Brasil for the Latin America n ... 5 KB (666 words) - 08:25, 20 September 2010 * Play (activity) Image:Soapbubbles-SteveEF. jpg | Child playing with bubble s Play refers to a range of voluntary , intrinsically motivated activities that ... 14 KB (2,128 words) - 00:11, 6 January 2011 * Fun Coast The Fun Coast is a region of Florida , in the United States . It extends along the Atlantic , or eastern, coast of the state, from ... 18 KB (2,333 words) - 02:46, 1 December 2010 * Fun (album) Fun is an album by singer-songwriter Daniel Johnston . It was his first major label release, as well as his only album for Atlantic ... 1 KB (154 words) - 04:07, 12 December 2010 * Fun (Da Mob song) "Fun" is the name of a House/Garage single (and popular club anthem) recorded by Da Mob , an American House music collective that featured ... 3 KB (433 words) - 15:01, 22 December 2009 * ISO 639:f fum fum | | | I/L | | | Fum | | | | | fun fun | | | I/L | | | Fulniô | | | | | fuq fuq | | | I/L | Niger-Congo | | Fulfulde, Central- ... 10 KB (781 words) - 10:07, 13 December 2010 * Fun, Fun, Fun "Fun, Fun, Fun", written by Brian Wilson and Mike Love , was a hit single by The Beach Boys that was released in 1964 on the band's ... 9 KB (1,475 words) - 21:24, 1 January 2011 * More Fun Comics More Fun Comics, originally titled New Fun: The Big Comic Magazine a.k.a. New Fun Comics was a 1935-1947 American comic book anthology ... 4 KB (567 words) - 22:07, 2 August 2010 * Worlds of Fun Worlds of Fun (WOF) is an amusement park in Kansas City, Missouri , United States . The park opened in 1973 and was originally built by ... 21 KB (3,055 words) - 22:14, 24 December 2010 * Fun Radio Fun Radio may refer to: Fun Radio (France), a major radio station in France. Fun Kids , British children's digital radio station earlier known ... 188 B (26 words) - 08:56, 23 August 2010 fu

birthday Return to the top

birth·day    /ˈbɜrθˌdeɪ/ Show Spelled[burth-dey] Show IPA –noun 1. the anniversary of a birth. 2. the day of a person's birth. 3. a day marking or commemorating the origin, founding, or beginning of something. 4. the festivities or celebration marking such a day or anniversary. Use birthday in a Sentence See images of birthday Search birthday on the Web Origin: 1350–1400; ME; see birth, day Dictionary.com Unabridged Based on the Random House Dictionary, © Random House, Inc. 2011. Cite This Source | Link To birthday Explore the Visual Thesaurus » Related Words for : birthday natal day View more related words » Birthday Definition Find Definitions For Any Word.Get Your Free Dictionary.com Toolbar. Dictionary.com World English Dictionary birthday (ˈbɜ�θˌdeɪ) [Click for IPA pronunciation guide] — n 1. a. an anniversary of the day of one's birth b. ( as modifier ): birthday present 2. the day on which a person was born 3. any anniversary Collins English Dictionary - Complete & Unabridged 10th Edition 2009 © William Collins Sons & Co. Ltd. 1979, 1986 © HarperCollins Publishers 1998, 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006, 2007, 2009 Cite This Source Word Origin & History birthday O.E. byrddæg , "anniversary celebration of someone's birth" (usually a king or saint at first), from birth + day. Meaning "day on which one is born" is from 1570s. Birthnight is attested from 1620s. Online Etymology Dictionary, © 2010 Douglas Harper Cite This Source Famous Quotations birthday "Heywood Floyd: Can't you think of anything else you wan..." "There are three hundred and sixty-four days when you mi..." "Because the birthday of my life Is come, my love i..." "the birthday of my life Is come, my love is come t..." "Midnight, and the clock strikes. It is Christmas Day, t..." More Quotes

A birthday is a day or anniversary of the particular month and day on which a person was born. Birthdays are celebrated in numerous cultures, often with a gift, party or rite of passage. Although the major religions celebrate the birth of their founders (e.g., Buddha's Birthday), Christmas - which is celebrated widely by Christians and non-Christians alike - is the most prominent example. In contrast, certain religious groups express principled opposition to the very idea of celebrating birthdays.[citation needed] Contents [hide] * 1 Legal conventions * 2 Cultural conventions o 2.1 Name days o 2.2 Official birthdays * 3 Frequency * 4 Timezones and birthdays * 5 Leap day * 6 Religious opposition o 6.1 Judaism o 6.2 Christianity o 6.3 Superstitious origins of celebrations * 7 See also * 8 References * 9 Further reading [edit] Legal conventions In most legal systems, one becomes a legal adult on a particular birthday (often the 14th through 21st[1]), and reaching age-specific milestones confers particular rights and responsibilities. At certain ages, one may become subject to military conscription or become eligible to enlist in the military, to marry without parental consent, to vote, to legally purchase (or consume) alcohol and tobacco products, to purchase lottery tickets, or to obtain a driver's license. [edit] Cultural conventions Many cultures have one or more coming of age birthdays: * Jewish boys become bar mitzvah on their 13th birthday. Jewish girls become bat mitzvah on their 12th birthday, or sometimes on their 13th birthday in Reform and Conservative Judaism.[2] * In North America, families mark a girl's 16th birthday with a Sweet sixteen (birthday) celebration. * In Hispanic-American countries the quinceañera celebration traditionally marks a girl's 15th birthday.[3] * In Indian Hindus, the 12th or 13th birthday is replaced with a grand "thread ceremony." The child takes a blessed thread and wears it, symbolizing his coming of age. This is called the Upanayana. This ceremony is practiced amongst boys in the Hindu Brahmin culture.[4] * In the Philippines, girls on their 18th birthday or boys on their 21st birthday celebrate a debut.[5] * In some Asian countries that follow the Zodiac calendar, there is a tradition of celebrating the 60th birthday.[6] The birthdays of historically significant people, like national heroes or founders, are often commemorated by an official holiday. Some saints are remembered by a liturgical feast (sometimes on a presumed birthday). By analogy, the Latin term Dies natalis is applied to the anniversary of an institution (such as a university). A person's Golden or Grand Birthday, also referred to as their "Lucky Birthday", "Champagne Birthday" or "Star Birthday", occurs when they turn the age of their birth day (e.g., when someone born on the 26th of the month turns 26).[7] [edit] Name days In some Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox countries such as Italy, Spain, France, Poland, Russia, Romania, Bulgaria, Serbia, Slovakia, Czech Republic, Hungary, or Greece and Latvia it is common to have a 'name day'/'Saint's day'. It's common in Latin America too. This is celebrated in much the same way as a birthday, but is held on the official day of a saint with the same Christian name as the birthday person; the difference being that one may look up a person's name day in a calendar, or easily remember common name days (for example, John or Mary); however in pious traditions, the two were often made to concur by giving a newborn the name of a saint celebrated on its birthday, or even the name of a feast, for example, Noel or Pascal (French for Christmas and "of Easter"); for one, Togliatti got Palmiro as first name because he was born on Palm Sunday. [edit] Official birthdays Colored lanterns at the Lotus Lantern Festival in Seoul, South Korea, celebrating the Buddha's birthday Some notables, particularly monarchs, have an official birthday on a fixed day of the year, which may not necessarily match their actual birthday, but on which celebrations are held. Examples are: * Jesus Christ's traditional birthday is celebrated as Christmas Day around the world, on December 25. As some Eastern churches use the Julian calendar, December 25 will fall upon January 7 in the Gregorian calendar. * The Queen's Official Birthday in Australia, Fiji, New Zealand, as well as the United Kingdom; in Canada, this day is known as Victoria Day. * The Grand Duke's Official Birthday in Luxembourg is typically celebrated upon June 23. * Koninginnedag in the Kingdom of the Netherlands is typically celebrated upon April 30. Queen Beatrix fixed it at the birthday of her mother, the previous Queen, to avoid the winter weather associated with her own birthday in January. * The Current Japanese Emperor Heisei (Akihito)'s birthday is December 23, which is a national holiday in Japan. * The previous Japanese Emperor Showa (Hirohito)'s birthday was April 29. After his death, the holiday was kept as "Showa no Hi", or "Showa Day". This holiday falls close to Golden Week, the week in late April and early May that contains several national holidays and is a popular week-long vacation for many workers in Japan. While it is uncommon to have an official holiday for a head of state's birthday in a republic, this does occur; for example, George Washington's birthday in the United States, which is commonly called Presidents Day. [edit] Frequency According to a public record births database, birthdays in the United States are quite evenly distributed for the most part. However, there tend to be more births in September and October. This may be because there is holiday season nine months before, or from the fact that the longest nights of the year happen in the Northern Hemisphere nine months before as well.[8] October 5 is considered to be the most populous birthday in the United States, while May 22 is considered to be the least common birthday in the United States.[9] [edit] Timezones and birthdays A person's birthday is usually recorded according to the time zone of the place of birth. Thus people born in Samoa at 11:30 pm will record their birthdate as one day before Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) and those born in the Line Islands will record their birthdate one day after UTC. They will apparently be born two days apart, while some of the apparently older ones may be younger in hours. Those who live in different time zones from their birth often exclusively celebrate their birthdays at the local time zone. In addition, the intervention of Daylight Saving Time can result in a case where a baby born second being recorded as having been born up to an hour before their predecessor.[10] [edit] Leap day See: Leapling and February 29 #Births [edit] Religious opposition [edit] Judaism In Judaism, the perspective on birthday celebrations is disputed by various rabbis.[11] In the Hebrew Bible, the one single mention of a celebration being held in commemoration of someone's day of birth is for the Egyptian Pharaoh.[12] The bar mitzvah of 13-year-old Jewish boys, or bat mitzvah for 12-year-old Jewish girls, is perhaps the only Jewish celebration undertaken in what is often perceived to be in coalition with a birthday. However, the essence of a bar/bat mitzvah celebration is entirely religious in origin (i.e. the attainment of religious maturity according to Jewish law) and not secular, despite modern celebrations where the secular "birthday" element often overshadows the essence of it as a religious rite. With or without the "birthday" celebration, the child nevertheless becomes a bar or bat mitzvah, and the celebration can be on that day or any date after it. [edit] Christianity The early Christians did not celebrate Christ's birth because they considered the celebration of anyone's birth to be a pagan custom. Few branches of Christianity today hold an official stance on birthdays. Orthodox Christianity prefers the celebration of name days only, though not for theological reasons. Some Christian communities, especially in the Hispanosphere, celebrate both naming days and birthdays. Jehovah's Witnesses and some Sacred Name groups refrain from celebrating birthdays on the basis that they are portrayed in a negative light in the Bible and have historical connections with magic, superstitions, and Paganism.[13][14][15][16][17] In the Greek Scriptures, King Herod beheaded John the Baptizer, at his birthday celebration. By reading first Job 1:4 and then Job 3:1, 3 it is seen that the children of righteous Job had special banquets. ( Job 1:4 Does not say anywhere that is was on their birthdays, it just states that they did not all hold it on the same day, but they took turns). The original-language words for “day� and “birthday� are different, each having its own meaning. (Like at Genesis 40:20; "Now on the third day it turned out to be Phar′aoh’s birthday"). The Hebrew word for day is yohm, The Hebrew word for birthday is a compound of the two Hebrew words yohm(the day) and (hul·le′dheth) as in Genesis 40:20 “Now on the third day [yohm] it turned out to be Pharaoh’s birthday [literally, “the day (yohm) of the birth (hul·le′dheth) of Pharaoh�].� So it is certain that Job 1:4 does not refer to a birthday, as is unquestionably the case at Genesis 40:20. It would seem that Job’s seven sons held a family gathering (possibly a spring or harvest festival) and as the feasting made the week-long circuit, each son hosted the banquet in his own house “on his own day.� Job 3:1,3 does not talk about a yearly birthdays celebration, but about the day he was actually born. That is quite clear from the last part of verse 3. In this account, Job is being tested by Satan being stricken by every sort of torture to test his loyalty toward Jehovah God and in his sufferings he is at this point, of losing everything, is regretting his birth (hul·le′dheth) altogether. In Luke Chapter 2 verses 6-20 the Bible describes the angels and the shepherds celebrating the birth of Christ. Specifically verses 10-14 show the celebration the angels did during the day of Christ's birth. "10 but the angel reassured them. “Don’t be afraid!� he said. “I bring you good news that will bring great joy to all people. 11 The Savior—yes, the Messiah, the Lord—has been born today in Bethlehem, the city of David! 12 And you will recognize him by this sign: You will find a baby wrapped snugly in strips of cloth, lying in a manger.� 13 Suddenly, the angel was joined by a vast host of others—the armies of heaven—praising God and saying, 14 “Glory to God in highest heaven, and peace on earth to those with whom God is pleased.�" The World Book Encyclopedia considered anyone who celebrated the birth of anyone a pagan custom. The ancient Greeks, for instance, believed that each person had a protective spirit that attended the person’s birth and thereafter watched over him. That spirit “had a mystic relation with the god on whose birthday the individual was born,� says the book The Lore of Birthdays. [edit] Superstitious origins of celebrations A number of possible superstitious origins for customs associated with birthday celebrations have been suggested. One source states that the tradition of birthday parties started in Europe. It was feared that evil spirits were particularly attracted to people on their birthdays and to protect them, they would be visited by friends and family, who would bring good thoughts and wishes.[18] [edit] See also * Various birthdays are mentioned on the pages devoted to each day of the year, from January 1 to December 31. * Birthday paradox * Birthday attack * East Asian age reckoning - a different method of age reckoning to birthdays that is used in some Asian countries. * Half-birthday * Death anniversary/ Yahrzeit * Unbirthday * Decimal Birthday * Sashtiabdhapoorthi * Birthstones [edit] References 1. ^ http://www.avert.org/age-of-consent.htm 2. ^ http://www.aish.com/jl/l/48956006.html 3. ^ http://www.bellaonline.com/articles/art40429.asp 4. ^ http://www.hinduyuva.org/node/83 5. ^ http://www.kaysbridal.biz/debuts 6. ^ See: Sexagenary cycle#Overview. 7. ^ http://everything2.com/title/Golden+birthday 8. ^ Anybirthday 9. ^ Davis, Kristin (5 October 2004). "Today is the most common U.S. birthday, according to anybirthday.com". Fredericksburg Star (Fredericksburg, Virginia). http://www.fredericksburg.com/News/FLS/2004/102004/10052004/1523986/index_html. Retrieved 13 April 2010. 10. ^ WRAL.com Daylight-Saving Causes Twin Arrival Pickle 11. ^ Reb Chaim HaQoton: Happy Birthday! April 17, 2007 12. ^ "Birthday in Torah". Just Asked. GatewaysOnline.com. http://www.asktherabbi.org/DisplayQuestion.asp?ID=7549. Retrieved 2009-03-26. 13. ^ Awake! July 8, 2004, p. 30 "Christians refrain from any celebrations or customs that continue to involve false religious beliefs or activities that violate Bible principles. For example, the Bible definitely puts birthday celebrations in a bad light." 14. ^ The World Book Encyclopedia: Volume 3, page 416 15. ^ Questions From Readers, The Watchtower, November 15, 1960, p. 704. 16. ^ Questions From Readers, The Watchtower, October 15, 1998, p. 30. 17. ^ Are Birthday Celebrations Christian? 18. ^ Re: Happy Birthday - The Phrase Finder

events Return to the top

e·vent    /ɪˈvɛnt/ Show Spelled[ih-vent] Show IPA –noun 1. something that happens or is regarded as happening; an occurrence, esp. one of some importance. 2. the outcome, issue, or result of anything: The venture had no successful event. 3. something that occurs in a certain place during a particular interval of time. 4. Physics . in relativity, an occurrence that is sharply localized at a single point in space and instant of time. Compare world point. 5. Sports . any of the contests in a program made up of one sport or of a number of sports: The broad jump event followed the pole vault. —Idioms 6. in any event, regardless of what happens; in any case. Also, at all events. 7. in the event of, if there should be: In the event of rain, the party will be held indoors. 8. in the event that, if it should happen that; in case: In the event that I can't come back by seven, you can eat without me. Use events in a Sentence See images of events Search events on the Web Origin: 1560–70; < L ēventus occurrence, outcome, equiv. to ēven ( īre ) to occur, come out + -tus suffix of v. action —Related forms e·vent·less, adjective su·per·e·vent, noun —Synonyms 1. happening, affair, case, circumstance. Event, episode, incident, occurrence are terms for a happening. An event is usually an important happening: historical events. An episode is one of a series of happenings in a person's life or in a narrative: an episode in one's life. An incident is an event of usually minor importance: an amusing incident in a play. An occurrence is something that happens, often by surprise: His arrival was an unexpected occurrence. 2. consequence. Dictionary.com Unabridged Based on the Random House Dictionary, © Random House, Inc. 2011. Cite This Source | Link To events Word Origin & History event 1570s, from M.Fr. event , from L. eventus "occurrence, issue," from evenire "to come out, happen, result," from ex- "out" + venire "to come" (see venue). Event horizon in astrophysics is from 1969. Online Etymology Dictionary, © 2010 Douglas Harper Cite This Source Medical Dictionary event definition Pronunciation: /i-ˈvent/ Function: n : an adverse or damaging medical occurrence heart attack or other cardiac event > Merriam-Webster's Medical Dictionary, © 2007 Merriam-Webster, Inc. Cite This Source Legal Dictionary Main Entry: event Function: noun 1 : something that happens : OCCURRENCE 2 : the issue or outcome of a legal action or proceeding as finally determined Merriam-Webster's Dictionary of Law, © 1996 Merriam-Webster, Inc. Cite This Source Famous Quotations event "Just as a mirror may be used to reflect images, so anci..." "but Overall is beyond me: is the sum of these events "Moscow, breathing fire like a human volcano with its sm..." "Mental events such as perceivings, rememberings, decisi..." "As I look at the human story I see two stories. They ru..." More Quotes Popular Subjects: FriendshipFunnyInspirationalLifeLoveProverbs

catering Return to the top

Events range from box-lunch drop-off to full-service catering. Caterers and their staff are part of the foodservice industry. When most people refer to a "caterer", they are referring to an event caterer who serves food with waiting staff at dining tables or sets up a self-serve buffet. The food may be prepared on site, i.e., made completely at the event, or the caterer may choose to bring prepared food and put the finishing touches on once it arrives. The event caterer staff are not responsible for preparing the food but often help set up the dining area. This service is typically provided at banquets, conventions, and weddings. Any event where all who attend are provided with food and drinks or sometimes only hors d'oeuvres is often called a catered event. Many events require working with an entire theme or color scheme. A catering company or specialist is expected to know how to prepare food and to make it attractive. As such, certain catering companies have moved toward a full-service business model commonly associated with event planners. They take charge of not only food preparation but also decorations, such as table settings and lighting. The trend is towards satisfying all the clients senses with food as a focal point. With the correct atmosphere, professional event caterers with experience can make an event special and memorable. Beautifully prepared food alone can appeal to the senses of taste, smell, and sight - perhaps even touch, but the decorations and ambiance can play a significant part in a successfully catered event. Catering is often sold on a per-person basis, meaning that there is a flat price for each additional person. However, things like lighting and fire permits are not scaled with the guest count, so per-person pricing is not always appropriate. It is necessary to keep the cost of the food and supplies below a price margin in order to make a profit on the catering. As many others in the food service industry, caterers and their staff work long hours. It is not uncommon for them to work on holidays or 7 days a week during holiday event seasons. A comprehensive, formal full-service catering proposal is likely to include the following time-line matters: * Rental arrival time * Staff arrival time * Bar open time * Meal serve time * Bar close time * Rental pickup * Out-of-venue time Each of these factors affects the catering price. For example, a rental quote for an "anytime" weekday delivery is usually much more economical than an "exact-time" delivery. * General menu considerations: Clients may have specific dietary or religious needs to consider. these include Halal, Kosher, Vegetarian, Vegan and food allergy requests. Increasingly, clients are interested in food sustainability and food safety. * Hors d'oeuvres: it should be clear if these are passed or stationary. Most caterers agree that three or four passed items are appropriate for the one-hour period prior to a meal. * Meal Rentals: May include tables, chairs, dance floor, plants, tabletop (china, flatware, glassware, linens, chargers), bar glassware, serving equipment, salt/peppers, etc. It should be clear whether table and chair setup and take-down is included. Most rental companies do not automatically include setup and take-down in the rental charges. * Labor: varies from caterer to caterer, but generally speaking, an event will have a Lead/Captain/Event Manager, a Chef, perhaps a Sous Chef or Kitchen Assistant, Wait staff and Bartenders. The labor on a plated dinner is generally much higher than the labor on a buffet, because a plated dinner involves double the china, and usually a minimum of three served courses, plus served coffee. Simply put, there's a lot more to do. To do it properly requires roughly 10 to 50% more staff. On a large event, this can be substantial, especially if overtime or doubletime applies. * Service Charge: Sales Tax, Some quotes will include lighting,liquor permit, fire permits, draping, florals, valet and coat check. Many venues discreetly get a "cut" of the catering bill. Caterers are contractually committed to not disclose this fee specifically in their contracts with the clients. Therefore, catering will sometimes cost substantially more at one venue versus another. Also, caterers must compete with illegal operators. A legitimate caterer will have a business license and a health permit both showing the address of the place from which they do business. [edit] Boxed Lunch Catering A box lunch is a lunch consisting of a sandwich, chips, fruit and a dessert. A box lunch is typically prepared by a caterer and dropped off to a location for a client’s dining needs. Box lunches are used primarily in the corporate arena for working lunches when they do not have time to take a break from their meeting yet still need to eat. A box lunch order is placed with a caterer a couple of days before the delivery date and is a cheaper way to go instead of a full sit down lunch. The box lunch option is strictly a drop off service and does not offer any type of wait staff or cleanup. The caterer’s only job is to prepare and deliver the food. In some cases, the caterer can setup the food, which means placing the individual cartons on a table or another area that is easily accessible to the clients. A box lunch is prepared for each person, so that they have all of their food in one container. This makes for very quick efficient service. Caterers can offer a variety of sandwiches such as: * Roast Beef * Turkey * Ham * Egg * Tuna Salad * Chicken * Chicken Salad * Vegetarian The box lunch will also include an individual pack of chips, a piece of fruit and a dessert such as a cookie or a brownie. Drinks such as sodas, waters and juices will also be dropped off by the caterer in individual containers but may or may not be included in the box lunch itself. The idea is for the clients to be able to grab their box and a drink and go. The boxes or bags should be visibly marked with the type of sandwich included or grouped together for easy identification. The individual bags and boxes allow guests to dispose of their trash at their leisure and keep everything neat and clean. For example, if a company is holding their lunch meeting in a conference room, it is necessary that they can clean up easily. Every individual can simply place all of their trash back into the box or bag to clean up. [edit] Catering Officers on ships Merchant ships often carry Catering Officers - especially ferries, cruise liners and large cargo ships. In fact, the term "catering" was in use in the world of the merchant marine long before it became established as a land-bound business. The "Careers Scotland" website [1] gives the following definition of a Catering Officer's duties: Merchant Navy catering officers oversee the purchase, preparation and serving of food and drink to crew members and passengers. They are also responsible for accommodation services, including the provision of linen, bedding and laundry. They may be in overall charge of administration, organising record keeping, wage payment, and the interpretation of customs and immigration records that apply while the ship is in port. On larger ships, responsibilities may be shared with the purser, who looks after passengers' comfort and facilities such as banking and shopping, while the catering officer concentrates on organising stores, overseeing the preparation of menus and meals and generally managing dining rooms and services. On a cruise liner, catering officers may be known as 'hotel services managers'. Merchant Navy officers sometimes work in difficult and uncomfortable conditions. They spend long periods of time away from family and friends.

Catering is the business of providing foodservice at a remote site or a site like a hotel, public house (pub) and other various locations. Contents [hide] * 1 Mobile catering * 2 Event catering * 3 Boxed Lunch Catering * 4 Catering Officers on ships * 5 See also * 6 References [edit] Mobile catering Main article: Mobile catering A mobile caterer serves food directly from a vehicle or cart that is designed for the purpose. Mobile catering is common at outdoor events (such as concerts), workplaces, and downtown business districts. [edit] Event catering Events range from box-lunch drop-off to full-service catering. Caterers and their staff are part of the foodservice industry. When most people refer to a "caterer", they are referring to an event caterer who serves food with waiting staff at dining tables or sets up a self-serve buffet. The food may be prepared on site, i.e., made completely at the event, or the caterer may choose to bring prepared food and put the finishing touches on once it arrives. The event caterer staff are not responsible for preparing the food but often help set up the dining area. This service is typically provided at banquets, conventions, and weddings. Any event where all who attend are provided with food and drinks or sometimes only hors d'oeuvres is often called a catered event. Many events require working with an entire theme or color scheme. A catering company or specialist is expected to know how to prepare food and to make it attractive. As such, certain catering companies have moved toward a full-service business model commonly associated with event planners. They take charge of not only food preparation but also decorations, such as table settings and lighting. The trend is towards satisfying all the clients senses with food as a focal point. With the correct atmosphere, professional event caterers with experience can make an event special and memorable. Beautifully prepared food alone can appeal to the senses of taste, smell, and sight - perhaps even touch, but the decorations and ambiance can play a significant part in a successfully catered event. Catering is often sold on a per-person basis, meaning that there is a flat price for each additional person. However, things like lighting and fire permits are not scaled with the guest count, so per-person pricing is not always appropriate. It is necessary to keep the cost of the food and supplies below a price margin in order to make a profit on the catering. As many others in the food service industry, caterers and their staff work long hours. It is not uncommon for them to work on holidays or 7 days a week during holiday event seasons. A comprehensive, formal full-service catering proposal is likely to include the following time-line matters: * Rental arrival time * Staff arrival time * Bar open time * Meal serve time * Bar close time * Rental pickup * Out-of-venue time Each of these factors affects the catering price. For example, a rental quote for an "anytime" weekday delivery is usually much more economical than an "exact-time" delivery. * General menu considerations: Clients may have specific dietary or religious needs to consider. these include Halal, Kosher, Vegetarian, Vegan and food allergy requests. Increasingly, clients are interested in food sustainability and food safety. * Hors d'oeuvres: it should be clear if these are passed or stationary. Most caterers agree that three or four passed items are appropriate for the one-hour period prior to a meal. * Meal Rentals: May include tables, chairs, dance floor, plants, tabletop (china, flatware, glassware, linens, chargers), bar glassware, serving equipment, salt/peppers, etc. It should be clear whether table and chair setup and take-down is included. Most rental companies do not automatically include setup and take-down in the rental charges. * Labor: varies from caterer to caterer, but generally speaking, an event will have a Lead/Captain/Event Manager, a Chef, perhaps a Sous Chef or Kitchen Assistant, Wait staff and Bartenders. The labor on a plated dinner is generally much higher than the labor on a buffet, because a plated dinner involves double the china, and usually a minimum of three served courses, plus served coffee. Simply put, there's a lot more to do. To do it properly requires roughly 10 to 50% more staff. On a large event, this can be substantial, especially if overtime or doubletime applies. * Service Charge: Sales Tax, Some quotes will include lighting,liquor permit, fire permits, draping, florals, valet and coat check. Many venues discreetly get a "cut" of the catering bill. Caterers are contractually committed to not disclose this fee specifically in their contracts with the clients. Therefore, catering will sometimes cost substantially more at one venue versus another. Also, caterers must compete with illegal operators. A legitimate caterer will have a business license and a health permit both showing the address of the place from which they do business. [edit] Boxed Lunch Catering A box lunch is a lunch consisting of a sandwich, chips, fruit and a dessert. A box lunch is typically prepared by a caterer and dropped off to a location for a client’s dining needs. Box lunches are used primarily in the corporate arena for working lunches when they do not have time to take a break from their meeting yet still need to eat. A box lunch order is placed with a caterer a couple of days before the delivery date and is a cheaper way to go instead of a full sit down lunch. The box lunch option is strictly a drop off service and does not offer any type of wait staff or cleanup. The caterer’s only job is to prepare and deliver the food. In some cases, the caterer can setup the food, which means placing the individual cartons on a table or another area that is easily accessible to the clients. A box lunch is prepared for each person, so that they have all of their food in one container. This makes for very quick efficient service. Caterers can offer a variety of sandwiches such as: * Roast Beef * Turkey * Ham * Egg * Tuna Salad * Chicken * Chicken Salad * Vegetarian The box lunch will also include an individual pack of chips, a piece of fruit and a dessert such as a cookie or a brownie. Drinks such as sodas, waters and juices will also be dropped off by the caterer in individual containers but may or may not be included in the box lunch itself. The idea is for the clients to be able to grab their box and a drink and go. The boxes or bags should be visibly marked with the type of sandwich included or grouped together for easy identification. The individual bags and boxes allow guests to dispose of their trash at their leisure and keep everything neat and clean. For example, if a company is holding their lunch meeting in a conference room, it is necessary that they can clean up easily. Every individual can simply place all of their trash back into the box or bag to clean up. [edit] Catering Officers on ships Merchant ships often carry Catering Officers - especially ferries, cruise liners and large cargo ships. In fact, the term "catering" was in use in the world of the merchant marine long before it became established as a land-bound business. The "Careers Scotland" website [1] gives the following definition of a Catering Officer's duties: Merchant Navy catering officers oversee the purchase, preparation and serving of food and drink to crew members and passengers. They are also responsible for accommodation services, including the provision of linen, bedding and laundry. They may be in overall charge of administration, organising record keeping, wage payment, and the interpretation of customs and immigration records that apply while the ship is in port. On larger ships, responsibilities may be shared with the purser, who looks after passengers' comfort and facilities such as banking and shopping, while the catering officer concentrates on organising stores, overseeing the preparation of menus and meals and generally managing dining rooms and services. On a cruise liner, catering officers may be known as 'hotel services managers'. Merchant Navy officers sometimes work in difficult and uncomfortable conditions. They spend long periods of time away from family and friends.

bounce house Return to the top

Inflatable structures are structures made of a flexible outer membrane or fabric that is filled with gas, such as air or helium. The gas gives shape and strength to the structure. Uses include roofs and covers, mock castles and games, sails, airships, furniture, aerospace structures, boats, escape slides, security mattresses, swimming pools, coverings, buildings and pavilions, and air bags. Contents [hide] * 1 Inflatable castles * 2 History * 3 Construction o 3.1 Standards * 4 Inflatable Obstacle Course * 5 Games * 6 Resources * 7 Inflatable associations o 7.1 United States o 7.2 United Kingdom o 7.3 Australia * 8 Events o 8.1 Edinburgh Festival Fringe o 8.2 Rollerwars * 9 Injury and death * 10 Methods of decoration * 11 Records o 11.1 Duration * 12 References * 13 External links [edit] Inflatable castles "Bouncy castle" redirects here. For the cryptography software, see Bouncy Castle (cryptography). The name given to such structures varies. They have been marketed with such names as Bounce house, Moon Bounce, Astrojump, Moonwalk, Jolly Jump and Spacewalk. The term "Bounce House" came to popularity with the resurgence of hipster culture in New England. In the United States the terms that consist of two, one syllable words are popular. Bouncy Castle or Inflatable Castle are used in Ireland, the UK, New Zealand and parts of Australia, and Jumping Castles in Arizona, Australia, Canada and South Africa. The term moonwalk has become a generic term for enclosed inflatable trampolines in the US. Inflatable structures are rented for functions, school and church festivals and village fetes. Although they are aimed at children, adult castles can be hired in the UK. Because of liability concerns, moonwalks are rarely rented to adults in the US. The growth in popularity of moonwalks has led to an inflatable rental industry which includes inflatable slides, obstacle courses, games, and more. Inflatables are ideal for portable amusements because they are easy to transport and store. A bouncy castle An inflatable shaped like an elephant A "Catch A Wave" inflatable slide [edit] History The first inflatable structure was designed in 1959 by John Scurlock in Shreveport, Louisiana who was experimenting with inflatable covers for tennis courts when he noticed his employees enjoyed jumping on the covers. He was a mechanical engineer and liked physics. John was a pioneer of inflatable domes, inflatable tents, inflatable signs and his greatest achievement was the invention of the safety air cushion that is used by fire and rescue departments to catch people jumping from buildings or heights.[1] The first space walk manufacturing company was in New Orleans in a leased warehouse that also sewed horse pads. His wife, Frances, started the first inflatable rental company in 1968 and in 1976 they built a custom facility for the production and rental of the products. They marketed the space walks to children's events such as birthday parties, school fairs and company picnics. Their son Frank Scurlock expanded their rental concept throughout the United States under the brand name Space Walk and Inflatable Zoo. Frank also founded the first all inflatable indoor play park called Fun Factory on Thanksgiving Day 1986 in Metairie, Louisiana. A second unit was opened in Memphis Tennessee called Fun Plex in 1987. Both locations closed after the value of the property became too great for the operations. The first inflatable was an open top mattress with no sides, called a Space Pillow. In 1967 a pressurized inflatable top was added, it required two fans and got hot in the Summer like a green house. That version was called Space Walk and adopted as the company name. In 1974, to solve the heat problem, a new product line called Jupiter Jump was created that has inflated columns that supported netting walls which allowed the air to pass through. Further enhancements of this style were developed such as a line of castles and animals which are referred to as the Inflatable Zoo. In the early 1990s Frank created the first commercial inflatable water slide called the Aqua Tunnel. Space Walk was the first company to bring an inflatable to the IAAPA convention, Showmen's Club and the American Rental Association. [edit] Construction The surfaces are typically composed of thick, strong PVC or vinyl and nylon, and the castle is inflated using an electric or petrol-powered blower. The principle is one of constant leakage, meaning small punctures are not a problem - a medium-size "bouncy castle" requires a fan with a mechanical output of about two horsepower (consuming around 2 kW electrical power, allowing for the efficiency of the motor). UK and Australian bouncy castles have specifications calling for fully inflated walls on three sides with an open front and foam "crash mats" to catch children who may jump or fall out of the structure. Modern moonwalks in the US are typically supported by inflatable columns and enclosed with netting. The netting allows for supervision as adults can see in from all sides. Cheaper inflatable structures are usually made of polyester rather than nylon PVC and do not use a blower, instead they are inflated with a pump similar to an airbed. They do not last as long and it is illegal in the UK and USA to hire these out. Another type of home-use inflatable has evolved, with a blower pumping in air continuously. Pores in the seams and material allow air to escape as kids play, while the blower continues to inflate the unit. This category has emerged as a response to parents who wish to buy an inflatable for home use. [edit] Standards In 2005 the most severe standards in the construction of an inflatable amusement were adopted nationally in Australia, forming Federal Standard AS3533.4. This was a landmark safety standard bringing the toughest design/construction/operation standards to the inflatable industry of Australia. In 2006 the European Union (EU) followed and introduced similar Federal standards throughout Europe called EN14960:2006 In the US, Pennsylvania and New Jersey, require inflatables to pass engineering and safety standards before allowing the equipment to be rented out.[citation needed] [edit] Inflatable Obstacle Course There are also inflatable obstacle course that allow for participants to have races and compete against one another. [edit] Games Some inflatables are designed to allow games such as boxing rings, water football, penalty shootouts, basketball, tug of war, and gladiator duels. These interactive inflatable games are made out of the same material that a continuous airflow bounce house is made of. Quad tracks are also popular and provide the perimeter for Quad bike racing. [edit] Resources To help customers find local inflatable hire, BouncyCastle.co.uk set up a bouncy castle directory. The list of companies is organised by County and was started in July 2010. Note: this is only for the United Kingdom. The site also features a discussion forum for people who are new to hiring. [edit] Inflatable associations To maintain the quality of inflatables, voluntary organizations exist for manufacturers, resellers and renters. [edit] United States In the US, the Association of Inflatable Rental Company Operators (AIRCO)[1] is the largest trade group for companies who rent inflatable amusements. Established in 2005, it evolved from a commercial forum. A trade group was needed to bring the industry together, promoting safety and monitoring standards. The Safe Inflatables Operators Training Organization (SIOTO)[2] was developed to train operators of inflatable games. With other operators from the Moonwalk Forum [3], Matthew Mark created SIOTO in 2005. [edit] United Kingdom In the UK, in 1978, plastics manufacturer Richard Hopkirk created the first bouncy castle where three out of four walls were inflatable, with the front left open for entry, exit and supervision. These Hop Castles, as the company was known, became the standard in the UK and are what is usually seen to this date (although Hopkirk failed to patent his castle and the design is used by many companies). In the UK, the BIHA (British Inflatable Hirers Alliance) http://www.biha.org.uk is a hirers organisation. Members agree a code of conduct for hirers, and anyone wanting to hire out a castle can check on their website if a hirer is a member. Manufacturers can become Associate Members. (In late 2008 the BIHA started BouncyCastleOwner.com, which has a discussion forum for the inflatable industry. See: http://www.bouncycastleowner.com ) PIPA [4] is a voluntary manufacturer and reseller's organization, which has been endorsed by the government Health and Safety organisation. Despite government backing it is not compulsory for inflatables sold for hire purposes to be PIPA tested. Hirers buying inflatables can ask for them to be "PIPA Tagged". This means the inflatable structure has been made to PIPA safety guidelines and has passed a PIPA test. If it passes a tag is put onto the inflatable specifying PIPA compliance. Hirers can also have their existing inflatables PIPA tested. Once an inflatable has passed a test it can be verified on the PIPA website to prevent fraud. All bouncy castles must conform to BS EN 14960:2006 standards and should be tested every year. Other organizations are the Performance Textiles Association, AIMODS (Association of Inflatables Manufacturers, Operators, Designers and Suppliers) and the Federation of Major Inflatable Manufacturers. [edit] Australia In Australia, the Australian Amusement Association (AAA) [5] was formed in 1997 to bring a cohesion to the small amusement ride operators, with the majority of members being backyard inflatable hirers. [edit] Events [edit] Edinburgh Festival Fringe A theatrical group named "The Strolling Theatricals" has started performing Shakespearean tragedies on bouncy castles at the Edinburgh Festival Fringe (Hamlet in 2006, Macbeth in 2007). The group went on to compete in the popular television show Britain's Got Talent. [edit] Rollerwars A giant inflatable set was made for a pending TV rollerskating show Rollerwars. This was used for the international world championships at the Birmingham NIA, England. The inflatable set is approximately 200 ft (61 m) by 120 ft long (37 m). [edit] Injury and death Although very rare, some children have been injured or died as a result of inflatable structures.[2] * In South Yorkshire a boy died in 2003 while using one.[3] * There have been numerous reports of the malicious deflation of bouncy castles whilst in use, notably the Horsington House Hotel incident which injured several people at a 21st birthday celebration.[4] * Two people were killed and 13 were injured when an inflatable structure took off at Riverside Park, Chester-le-Street, County Durham during powerful winds in 2006.[5] * An eight year old girl was killed and 15 people injured when a bouncy castle was caught in a strong wind and was lifted and thrown over 50 metres.[6] * A boy's parents sued the hirers of a jumping castle in 2005 when one boy somersaulted onto another at a birthday party causing brain damage.[7] An appeal was lodged, and the verdict was overturned.[8] The CPSC has released a bulletin concerning Inflatable Amusement Rides outlining the dangers and recommended safety precautions of operating an inflatable structure. [edit] Methods of decoration The artwork on most inflatable structures is hand-painted. It is cheaper for an artist to paint inflatables than to buy a printing machine or pay for a professional printer to print the artwork for a small quantity of inflatables.[citation needed] For those wishing to have inflatables professionally printed, rather than painted, two technologies exist. One is to use screenprinting and the other uses digital printing machines which can print onto nylon. Usually, if the printing method is used then white PVC must be used and a pattern or artwork printed onto this. Digital printing allows photographic quality pictures, something which is either difficult or impossible with hand-painting. Hand-painting is more durable as the paints tend to last longer in water, rain, and handling than printouts. It is also better for "cartoon" style images, which is the norm on children's inflatables.

chairs Return to the top

A chair is a stable, raised surface used to sit on, commonly for use by one person. Chairs often have the seat raised above floor level, supported by four legs. However, a chair can have three legs (in a triangle shape) or could have a different shape depending on the criteria of the chair specifications. A chair without a back or arm rests is a stool, or when raised up, a bar stool. A chair with arms is an armchair and with folding action and inclining footrest, a recliner. A permanently fixed chair in a train or theater is a seat or airline seat; when riding, it is a saddle and bicycle saddle, and for an automobile, a car seat or infant car seat. With wheels it is a wheelchair and when hung from above, a swing. The design may be made of porous materials, or be drilled with holes for decoration; a low back or gaps can provide ventilation. The back may extend above the height of the occupant's head, which can optionally contain a headrest. A chair for more than one person is a couch, sofa, settee, or "loveseat"; or a bench. A separate footrest for a chair is known as an ottoman, hassock or pouffe. Contents [hide] * 1 History of the chair * 2 Design and ergonomics o 2.1 Armrests * 3 Chair seats * 4 Standards and specifications * 5 Accessories * 6 Chairs as sculptural and art forms * 7 English phrases relating to chairs * 8 See also * 9 References * 10 Further reading * 11 External links [edit] History of the chair Main article: History of the chair Early twentieth century chair made in eastern Australia, with strong heraldic embellishment The chair is of extreme antiquity and simplicity, although for many centuries and indeed for thousands of years it was an article of state and dignity rather than an article of ordinary use. "The chair" is still extensively used as the emblem of authority in the House of Commons in the United Kingdom and Canada, and in many other settings. Committees, boards of directors, and academic departments all have a 'chairman'. Endowed professorships are referred to as chairs. It was not, in fact, until the 16th century that it became common anywhere. The chest, the bench and the stool were until then the ordinary seats of everyday life, and the number of chairs which have survived from an earlier date is exceedingly limited; most of such examples are of ecclesiastical or seigneurial origin. Our knowledge of the chairs of remote antiquity is derived almost entirely from monuments, sculpture and paintings. A few actual examples exist in the British Museum, in the Egyptian Museum at Cairo, and elsewhere. In ancient Egypt chairs appear to have been of great richness and splendor[citation needed]. Fashioned of ebony and ivory, or of carved and gilded wood, they were covered with costly materials, magnificent patterns and supported upon representations of the legs of beasts or the figures of captives. During Tang dynasty (618 - 907 AD), a higher seat first started to appear amongst the Chinese elite and their usage soon spread to all levels of society. By the 12th century seating on the floor was rare in China, unlike in other Asian countries where the custom continued, and the chair, or more commonly the stool, was used in the vast majority of houses throughout the country. In Europe, it was owing in great measure to the Renaissance that the chair ceased to be a privilege of state, and became a standard item of furniture for anyone who could afford to buy it. Once the idea of privilege faded the chair speedily came into general use. We find almost at once that the chair began to change every few years to reflect the fashions of the hour. The 20th century saw an increasing use of technology in chair construction with such things as all-metal folding chairs, metal-legged chairs, the Slumber Chair, moulded plastic chairs and ergonomic chairs. The recliner became a popular form, at least in part due to radio and television, and later a two-part. The modern movement of the 1960s produced new forms of chairs: the butterfly chair, bean bags, and the egg-shaped pod chair. Technological advances led to molded plywood and wood laminate chairs, as well as chairs made of leather or polymers. Mechanical technology incorporated into the chair enabled adjustable chairs, especially for office use. Motors embedded in the chair resulted in massage chairs. [edit] Design and ergonomics S Chair, Designed by Verner Panton Chair design considers intended usage, ergonomics (how comfortable it is for the occupant), as well as non-ergonomic functional requirements such as size, stackability, foldability, weight, durability, stain resistance and artistic design. Intended usage determines the desired seating position. "Task chairs", or any chair intended for people to work at a desk or table, including dining chairs, can only recline very slightly; otherwise the occupant is too far away from the desk or table. Dental chairs are necessarily reclined. Easy chairs for watching television or movies are somewhere in between depending on the height of the screen. Ergonomic design distributes the weight of the occupant to various parts of the body. A seat that is higher results in dangling feet and increased pressure on the underside of the knees ("popliteal fold"). It may also result in no weight on the feet which means more weight elsewhere. A lower seat may shift too much weight to the "seat bones" ("ischial tuberosities"). A reclining seat and back will shift weight to the occupant's back. This may be more comfortable for some in reducing weight on the seat area, but may be problematic for others who have bad backs. In general, if the occupant is supposed to sit for a long time, weight needs to be taken off the seat area and thus "easy" chairs intended for long periods of sitting are generally at least slightly reclined. However, reclining may not be suitable for chairs intended for work or eating at table. The back of the chair will support some of the weight of the occupant, reducing the weight on other parts of the body. In general, backrests come in three heights: Lower back backrests support only the lumbar region. Shoulder height backrests support the entire back and shoulders. Headrests support the head as well and are important in vehicles for preventing "whiplash" neck injuries in rear-end collisions where the head is jerked back suddenly. Reclining chairs typically have at least shoulder height backrests to shift weight to the shoulders instead of just the lower back. The Difference between Leg Room & Seat Pitch Some chairs have foot rests. A stool or other simple chair may have a simple straight or curved bar near the bottom for the sitter to place his or her feet on. Some chairs have two curved bands of wood (also known as rockers) attached to the bottom of the legs. They are called rocking chairs. The type of chair popular in western Hubei, China: with a fairly low seat and the back inclined at about 45 degrees from the vertical A kneeling chair adds an additional body part, the knees, to support the weight of the body. A sit-stand chair distributes most of the weight of the occupant to the feet. Many chairs are padded or have cushions. Padding can be on the seat of the chair only, on the seat and back, or also on any arm rests and/or foot rest the chair may have. Padding will not shift the weight to different parts of the body (unless the chair is so soft that the shape is altered). However, padding does distribute the weight by increasing the area of contact between the chair and the body. A hard wood chair feels hard because the contact point between the occupant and the chair is small. The same body weight over a smaller area means greater pressure on that area. Spreading the area reduces the pressure at any given point. In lieu of padding, flexible materials, such as wicker, may be used instead with similar effects of distributing the weight. Since most of the body weight is supported in the back of the seat, padding there should be firmer than the front of the seat which only has the weight of the legs to support. Chairs that have padding that is the same density front and back will feel soft in the back area and hard to the underside of the knees. There may be cases where padding is not desirable. For example, in chairs that are intended primarily for outdoor use. Where padding is not desirable, contouring may be used instead. A contoured seat pan attempts to distribute weight without padding. By matching the shape of the occupant's buttocks, weight is distributed and maximum pressure is reduced. Churchchairs Actual chair dimensions are determined by measurements of the human body or anthropometric measurements. The two most relevant anthropometric measurement for chair design is the popliteal height and buttock popliteal length. For someone seated, the popliteal height is the distance from the underside of the foot to the underside of the thigh at the knees. It is sometimes called the "stool height." The term "sitting height" is reserved for the height to the top of the head when seated. For American men, the median popliteal height is 16.3 inches and for American women it is 15.0 inches [1]. The popliteal height, after adjusting for heels, clothing and other issues is used to determine the height of the chair seat. Mass produced chairs are typically 17 inches high. For someone seated, the buttock popliteal length is the horizontal distance from the back most part of the buttocks to the back of the lower leg. This anthropometric measurement is used to determine the seat depth. Mass produced chairs are typically 15-17 inches deep. Additional anthropometric measurements may be relevant to designing a chair. Hip breadth is used for chair width and armrest width. Elbow rest height is used to determine the height of the armrests. The buttock-knee length is used to determine "leg room" between rows of chairs. "Seat pitch" is the distance between rows of seats. In some airplanes and stadiums the leg room (the seat pitch less the thickness of the seat at thigh level) is so small that it is sometimes insufficient for the average person. For adjustable chairs, such as an office chair, the aforementioned principles are applied in adjusting the chair to the individual occupant. [edit] Armrests Eames Lounge Chair and ottoman Main article: Armrest Art deco club chair. A chair may or may not have armrests; chairs with armrests are termed armchairs. In French, a distinction is made between fauteuil and chaise, the terms for chairs with and without armrests, respectively. If present, armrests will support part of the body weight through the arms if the arms are resting on the armrests. Armrests further have the function of making entry and exit from the chair easier (but from the side it becomes more difficult). Armrests should support the forearm and not the sensitive elbow area. Hence in some chair designs, the armrest is not continuous to the chair back, but is missing in the elbow area. A couch, bench, or other arrangement of seats next to each other may have armrest at the sides and/or arm rests in between. The latter may be provided for comfort, but also for privacy e.g. in public transport and other public places, and to prevent lying on the bench. Arm rests reduce both desired and undesired proximity. A loveseat in particular, has no armrest in between. See also seats in movie theaters, and pictures of benches with and without arm rests. [edit] Chair seats Polypropylene (molded plastic) seats and stainless steel legs in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. This type of material is very useful in sea regions Chair seats vary widely in construction and may or may not match construction of the chair's back (backrest). Some systems include: * center seats where a solid material forms the chair seat. o Solid wood, may or may not be shaped to human contours. o Wood slats, often seen on outdoor chairs o Padded leather, generally a flat wood base covered in padding and contained in soft leather o Stuffed fabric, similar to padded leather o Metal seats of solid or open design o Molded plastic o Stone, often marble * Open center seats where a soft material is attached to the tops of chair legs or between stretchers to form the seat. o Wicker, woven to provide a surface with give to it o Leather, may be tooled with a design o Fabric, simple covering without support o Tape, wide fabric tape woven into seat, seen in lawn chairs and some old chairs o Caning, woven from rush, reed, rawhide, heavy paper, strong grasses, cattails to form the seat, often in elaborate patterns o Splint, ash, oak or hickory strips are woven o Metal, Metal mesh or wire woven to form seat [edit] Standards and specifications Highly decorated carved-back chairs in Mexico Design considerations for chairs have been codified into standards. ISO 9241, "Ergonomic requirements for office work with visual display terminals (VDTs) -- Part 5: Workstation layout and postural requirements" is the most common one for modern chair design. There are multiple specific standards for different types of chairs. Dental chairs are specified by ISO 6875. Bean bag chairs are specified by ANSI standard ASTM F1912-98 [2]. ISO 7174 specifies stability of rocking and tilting chairs. ASTM F1858-98 specifies plastic lawn chairs. ASTM E1822-02b defines the combustibility of chairs when they are stacked. The Business and Institutional Furniture Manufacturer's Association (BIFMA)[3] defines BIFMA X5.1 for testing of commercial-grade chairs. It specifies things like [4]: * chair back strength of 150 pounds (68 kg) * chair stability if weight is transferred completely to the front or back legs * leg strength of 75 pounds (34 kg) applied one inch (25 mm) from the bottom of the leg * seat strength of 225 pounds (102 kg) dropped from six inches (150 mm) above the seat * seat cycle strength of 100,000 repetitions of 125 pounds (57 kg) dropped from 2 inches (50 mm) above the seat The specification further defines heavier "proof" loads that chairs must withstand. Under these higher loads, the chair may be damaged, but it must not fail catastrophically. Large institutions that make bulk purchases will reference these standards within their own even more detailed criteria for purchase. [5] Governments will often issue standards for purchases by government agencies (e.g. Canada's Canadian General Standards Board CAN/CGSB 44.15M [6] on "Straight Stacking Chair, Steel" or CAN/CGSB 44.232-2002 on "Task Chairs for Office Work with Visual Display Terminal"). Chairs may be rated by the length of time that they may be used comfortably — an 8-hour chair, a 24-hour chair, and so on. Such chairs are specified for tasks which require extended periods of sitting, such as for receptionists or supervisors of a control panel. [edit] Accessories AISI 304 stainless steel laboratory chair with gas springs and caster wheels. A specific type of chair for professional use In place of a built-in footrest, some chairs come with a matching ottoman. An ottoman is a short stool intended to be used as a footrest but can sometimes be used as a stool. If matched to a glider, the ottoman may be mounted on swing arms so that the ottoman rocks back and forth with the main glider. A chair cover is a temporary fabric cover for a side chair. They are typically rented for formal events such as wedding receptions to increase the attractiveness of the chairs and decor. The chair covers may come with decorative chair ties, a ribbon to be tied as a bow behind the chair. Covers for sofas and couches are also available for homes with small children and pets. In the second half of 20th century, some people used custom clear plastic covers for expensive sofas and chairs to protect them. Chair pads are cushions for chairs. They contain cotton or foam for padding. Some are decorative. In cars, they may be used to increase the height of the driver. Orthopedic backrests provide support for the back. Some manufacturers have patents on their designs and are recognized by medical associations as beneficial [7][8][9]. Car seats sometimes have built-in and adjustable lumbar supports. These can also be used on kitchen chairs. Chair mats are mats meant to cover carpet or hardwood flooring. They are usually made from plastic. This allows chairs on wheels to roll easily over the carpet and/or protects the carpet or floor. They come in various shapes, some specifically sized to fit partially under a desk. Remote control bags can be draped over the arm of easy chairs or sofas and used to hold remote controls. They are counter-weighted so as to not slide off the arms under the weight of the remote control. Chair glides are attached to the feet of chairs to prevent them from scratching or snagging on the floor. Caster wheels are attached to the feet of chairs to give more mobility Gas springs are attached to the body of the chair in order to give height adjustment and more comfort to the user The Twelve Chairs monument in Odessa - Deribassovskaya street (Ukraine). [edit] Chairs as sculptural and art forms In 2001, Steve Mann exhibited a chair sculpture at San Francisco Art Institute. The chair had spikes that retracted when a credit card was inserted to download a seating license. Chair sculpture by Steve Mann, exhibited at San Francisco Art Institute, 2001, comprises spikes that retract when a credit card is inserted to download a seating license. Later other museums and galleries were equipped with the Pay to Sit chair, with a global central seating license server located in Toronto. Patrons anywhere in the world could each receive one free seat license. The first seating session was free, with a database of persons who'd already used their free session. In the game, "Castlevania: Curse of Darkness", chairs are found throughout the game as pieces of art. Although not the real sculpture, it is possible that the chairs are considered as fictional art. [edit] English phrases relating to chairs Lists of miscellaneous information should be avoided. Please relocate any relevant information into appropriate sections or articles. (July 2008) * A film or a story is said to keep you on the edge of your seat, if it is suspenseful or engaging. * If you nearly fell off your chair, it was because you were very surprised. * When English-speaking philosophers talk about the material world as opposed to ideas, their phrase is tables and chairs. * An orchestra awards a musician a chair or seat based on ability. The best player in a particular section will receive "first chair," or the "principal seat." It is also common for this position to be known as 'first stand,' a reference to the portable lectern on which the musicians put their sheet music. However, the person who is first chair in the first violin section is usually referred to as the concertmaster in the USA or leader in the UK. * Musical chairs is a common party game, and a colloquial expression to describe people shuffling from seat to seat, or around different locations. * In American slang, to say someone has gotten "the chair" is to say that they have been executed by an electric chair. * One who is extremely anxious is 'as nervous as a long-tailed cat in a room full of rocking chairs'. * To be on its last leg is an expression that stems from the practice of sawing the ends of chair legs off in previous centuries. It means that it is decrepit and nearing the end of its serviceability.

decorations Return to the top

* jugum * forfend * affable * egregious decorations - 2 dictionary results M&M'S® Chocolate Candies Coconut, Peanut, Dark Chocolate & More. Shop M&M'S® This Season! www.MMS.com Fifi Party Rentals Party Rentals for all occasions Tables-Chairs-Tents-Bounce House fifipartyrentals.com Party City Official Site Plates, Napkins, Cups, Tableware & More. Top Quality. Order Online Now PartyCity.com/Party-Supplies dec·o·ra·tion    /ˌdɛkəˈreɪʃən/ Show Spelled[dek-uh-rey-shuhn] Show IPA –noun 1. something used for decorating; adornment; embellishment: The gymnasium was adorned with posters and crepe-paper decorations for the dance. 2. the act of decorating. 3. interior decoration. 4. a badge, medal, etc., conferred and worn as a mark of honor: a decoration for bravery. Use decorations in a Sentence See images of decorations Search decorations on the Web Origin: 1575–85; < LL decor�ti�n- (s. of decor�ti� ) an ornament. See decorate, -ion —Related forms non·dec·o·ra·tion, noun o·ver·dec·o·ra·tion, noun re·dec·o·ra·tion, noun su·per·dec·o·ra·tion, noun Dictionary.com Unabridged Based on the Random House Dictionary, © Random House, Inc. 2011. Cite This Source | Link To decorations Word Origin & History decoration 1580s, "action of decorating," from L.L. decorationem , noun of action from decorare (see decorate). Meaning "that which decorates" is from 1670s. As "a badge or medal worn as a mark of honor," it is attested from 1816 (often in plural, decorations ). Online Etymology Dictionary, © 2010 Douglas Harper Cite This Source Famous Quotations decoration "In the far South the sun of autumn is passing Like..." "And deck the bananas in leaves Plucked from the Ca..." "There's something like a line of gold thread running th..." "Once upon a time the actors were genuine and the decora..." "Let the realist not mind appearances. Let him delegate ..." More Quotes Popular Subjects: FriendshipFunnyInspirationalLifeLoveProverbs

rentals Return to the top

Renting is an agreement where a payment is made for the temporary use of a good, service or property owned by another. A gross lease is when the tenant pays a flat rental amount and the landlord pays for all property charges regularly incurred by the ownership from lawnmowers and washing machines to handbags and jewellry.[1] Contents [hide] * 1 Reasons for renting * 2 Growth of rental industry * 3 Rental agreements * 4 Rent to own * 5 See also * 6 External links * 7 References [edit] Reasons for renting There are many possible reasons for renting instead of buying, for example: * In many jurisdictions (including India, Spain, Australia, UK and the United States) rent used in a trade or business is tax deductible, whereas rent on a dwelling is not tax deductible in most jurisdictions. * Financial inadequacy, such as renting a house when one is unable to buy it. One may not wish to pay the full price that ownership would need, allowing for smaller payments over a specified period of time. * Reducing financial risk due to depreciation and transaction costs, especially for real estate which might be needed only for a short amount of time. * When something is needed only temporarily, as in the case of a special tool, a truck or a skip. * When something is needed that may or may not be already owned but is not in proximity for use, such as renting an automobile or bicycle when away on a trip. * Needing a cheaper alternative to buying, such as renting a movie: a person is unwilling to pay the full price for a movie, so they rent it for a lesser price, but give up the chance to view it again later. * The renter may want to leave the burden of upkeep of the property (mowing the lawn, shoveling snow, etc.) to the owner or his agents. * There is no need to worry about lifespan and maintenance. * Renting keeps off-balance-sheet the debt that would burden the balance sheet of a company in case the property would have been bought. * Renting can be better for the environment if products are used more efficiently by sharing rather than being disposed of or overproduced.[2] [edit] Growth of rental industry Short-term rental of all sorts of products (excluding real estate and holiday apartments) already represents an estimated €108 billion ($160 billion) annual market in Europe and is expected to grow further as the internet makes it easier to find specific items available for rent.[3] According to a poll by YouGov, 76% of people looking to rent would go to the internet first to find what they need; rising to 88% for those aged 25–34.[4] It has been widely reported that the financial crisis of 2007–2010 may have contributed to the rapid growth of online rental marketplaces, such as erento, as consumers are more likely to consider renting instead of buying in times of financial hardship.[5] Environmental concerns, fast depreciation of goods, and a more transient workforce also mean that consumers are increasingly searching for rentals online.[3] A 2010 U.S. survey found 27% of renters plan to never buy a home.[6] [edit] Rental agreements There is typically an implied, explicit, or written rental agreement or contract involved to specify the terms of the rental, which are regulated and managed under contract law. Examples include: * Renting real estate (real property) for the purpose of housing tenure (where the lessee rents a residence to live in), parking space for a vehicle(s), storage space, whole or portions of properties for business, agricultural, institutional, or government use, or other reasons. * When renting real estate, the person(s) or party who lives in or occupies the real estate is often called a tenant, paying rent to the owner of the property, the lessor, often called a landlord (or landlady). The real estate rented may be all or part of almost any real estate, such as an apartment, house, building, business office(s) or suite, land, farm, or merely an inside or outside space to park a vehicle, or store things all under Real estate law. * The rental agreement for real estate is often called a lease, and usually involves specific property rights in real property, as opposed to chattels. * In India, the rental income on property is taxed under the head "income from house property". A deduction of 30 % is allowed from total rent which is charged to tax. The time use of a chattel or other so called "personal property" is covered under general contract law, but the term lease also nowadays extends to long term rental contracts of more expensive non-Real properties such as automobiles, boats, planes, office equipment and so forth. The distinction in that case is long term versus short term rentals. Some non-real properties commonly available for rent or lease are: * The renting of motion pictures on VHS or DVD, of audio CDs, of computer programs on CD-ROM. * Renting transport equipment, such as an automobile, boat, or a bicycle. * Renting somewhat specialized tools, such as a chainsaw, laptop, IT equipment or something more substantial, such as a forklift. * Very specialized rental of equipment may include items as large as cranes, oil rigs and submarines. * Renting a deckchair or beach chair and umbrella. * Furniture * Designer handbags, jewelry, sunglasses and watches. In various degrees, renting can involve buying services for various amounts of time, such as staying in a hotel, using a computer in an Internet cafe, or riding in a taxicab (some forms of English use the term "hiring" for this activity). As seen from the examples, some rented goods are used on the spot, but usually they are taken along; to help guarantee that they are brought back, one or more of the following applies: * one shows an identity document * one signs a contract; any damage already present when renting may be noted down to avoid that the renter is blamed for it when the good is returned * one pays a damage deposit (a refundable fee that may be used in part to pay for damage caused by the renter) * if the customer has a credit account with the rental company, they may rent over several months (or years) and will receive a recurring or continuation invoice each rental period until they return the equipment. In this case deposits are rarely required. * In certain types of rental (sometimes known as operated or wet rental) the charge may be calculated by the rental charge + timesheets of operators or drivers supplied by the rental company to operate the equipment. This is particularly relevant for crane rental companies. Sometimes the risk that the good is kept is reduced by it being a special model or having signs on it that cannot easily be removed, making it obvious that it is owned by the rental company; this is especially effective for goods used in public places, but even when used at home it may help due to social control. Persons and businesses that regularly rent goods from a particular company generally have an account with that company, which reduces the administrative procedure (transaction costs) on each occasion. Signing out books from a library could be considered renting when there is a fee per book. However the term lending is more common. [edit] Rent to own Some merchants have rent-to-own (also called lease-purchase or hire purchase) programs, usually for expensive items such as houses or appliances. Houses however are more commonly sold using a mortgage rather than hire purchase, the difference being who the house legally belongs to during the payment period: the seller in the former case, and the buyer in the latter. [edit] See also Look up rent in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. * Anti-Rent War * Bid rent theory * Leasing * Online DVD rental * Book rental service * Rental agreement * Rental car * Rental shop * Rent guarantee insurance * Rent strike * Rent to own * The Landlord's Game * Vacation rental * Wardrobing [edit] External links * Rent vs Buy (homes) NY Times [edit] References 1. ^ "If you want it, rent it ... from a 'must have' handbag to an Aston Martin", The Observer, 2009-01-04. Retrieved on 2009-09-09. 2. ^ "Why buy it when you can rent it?", The Observer, 2004-06-27. Retrieved on 2009-09-09. 3. ^ a b Schenker, Jennifer. "Tough Times? Rent, Don't Buy, with Erento", BusinessWeek, 2008-08-22. Retrieved on 2009-10-01. 4. ^ Pollok, Murray. News Highlights, International Rental News, 2009-04-01. Retrieved on 2009-09-01. 5. ^ Moshiri, Maryam. "Is renting the new buying?", BBC Breakfast News, 2009-04-27. Retrieved on 2009-05-01.

kids Return to the top

Biologically, a child (plural: children) is generally a human between the stages of birth and puberty. The legal definition of "child" generally refers to a minor, otherwise known as a person younger than the age of majority. "Child" may also describe a relationship with a parent or authority figure, or signify group membership in a clan, tribe, or religion; it can also signify being strongly affected by a specific time, place, or circumstance, as in "a child of nature" or "a child of the Sixties."[1] Contents [hide] * 1 Legal, biological, and social definitions o 1.1 As a non-adult * 2 Attitudes toward children * 3 Age of responsibility * 4 Socialization of the child * 5 Child mortality * 6 See also * 7 References [edit] Legal, biological, and social definitions Population aged under 15 years in 2005 The United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child defines a child as "a human being below the age of 18 years unless under the law applicable to the child, majority is attained earlier."[2] Ratified by 192 of 194 member countries. Biologically, a child is anyone between birth and puberty or in the developmental stage of childhood, between infancy and adulthood. Children generally have fewer rights than adults and are classed as not able to make serious decisions, and legally must always be under the care of a responsible adult. [edit] As a non-adult Recognition of childhood as a state different from adulthood began to emerge in the 16th and 17th centuries. Society began to relate to the child not as a miniature adult but as a person of a lower level of maturity needing adult protection, love and nurturing. This change can be traced in painting: In the Middle Ages, children were portrayed in art as miniature adults with no childish characteristics. In the 16th century, images of children began to acquire a distinct childish appearance. From the late 17th century onwards, children were shown playing. Toys and literature for children also began to develop at this time.[3] Peruvian school children in Lima [edit] Attitudes toward children Social attitudes toward children differ around the world in various cultures. These attitudes have changed over time. A 1988 study on European attitudes toward the centrality of children found that Italy was more child-centric and Holland less child-centric, with other countries, such as Austria, Great Britain, Ireland and West Germany falling in between.[4] [edit] Age of responsibility The age at which children are considered responsible for their own actions (e.g., marriage, voting, etc.) has also changed over time, and this is reflected in the way they are treated in courts of law. In Roman times, children were regarded as not culpable for crimes, a position later adopted by the Church. In the nineteenth century, children younger than seven years old were believed incapable of crime. Children from the age of seven forward were considered responsible for their actions. Therefore, they could face criminal charges, be sent to adult prison, and be punished like adults by whipping, branding or hanging.[5] Surveys have found that at least 25 countries around the world have no specified age for compulsory education. Minimum employment age and marriage age also vary. In at least 125 countries, children aged 7–15 may be taken to court and risk imprisonment for criminal acts. In some countries, children are legally obliged to go to school until they are 14 or 15 years old, but may also work before that age. A child's right to education is threatened by early marriage, child labour and imprisonment.[6] Further information: Age of consent, Age of majority, Age of criminal responsibility, and Marriageable age [edit] Socialization of the child Children in Namibia All children go through stages of social development. An infant or very young child will play alone happily. If another child wanders onto the scene, he or she may be physically attacked or pushed out of the way. Next, the child is able to play with another child, gradually learning to share and take turns. Eventually the group grows larger, to three or four children. By the time a child enters kindergarten, he or she is usually able to join in and enjoy group experiences.[7] Children with ADHD and learning disabilities may need extra help in developing social skills. The impulsive characteristics of an ADHD child may lead to poor peer relationships. Children with poor attention spans may not tune in to social cues in their environment, making it difficult for them to learn social skills through experience.[7] [edit] Child mortality According to population health experts, child mortality rates have fallen sharply since the 1990s. Deaths of children under the age of five are down by 42% in the United States, while Serbia and Malaysia have cut their rates by nearly 70%.[8] [edit] See also Listen to this article (info/dl) Play sound This audio file was created from a revision of Child dated 2008-06-24, and does not reflect subsequent edits to the article. (Audio help) More spoken articles Sound-icon.svg * Child (hieroglyph) * Childhood * Advertising to children * Age of consent * Child development * Children Youth and Environments Journal * Defense of infancy * List of youth topics * Youth rights * List of terms of endearment * Children's clothing [edit] References 1. ^ "American Heritage Dictionary". 2007-12-07. http://www.bartleby.com/61/13/C0291300.html. 2. ^ “Convention on the Rights of the Child� The Policy Press, Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights 3. ^ Essays on childhood 4. ^ Rachel K. Jones and April Brayfield, Life's greatest joy?: European attitudes toward the centrality of children. Social Forces, Vol. 75, No. 4, Jun 1997. 1,239-69 pp. Chapel Hill, North Carolina. 5. ^ Juvenile courts 6. ^ Melchiorre, A. (2004) At What Age?...are school-children employed, married and taken to court? 7. ^ a b Socialization stages 8. ^ Child mortality rates dropping Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Children [show]v · d · eHuman Development: Biological • Psychological Diagram of approximate ages and stages of child development. Many periods of time overlap, and all periods are approximate. Newborn or neonate runs from nought to three months. Infancy from nought to eleven months. Toddlerhood from eleven months to three years. Childhood from two to thirteen years. Play age from one to seven years. Preschooler from three to six years, primary school from five to eleven years, then secondary school to eighteen years. Preteen from nine to twelve years. Preadolescence from nine to thirteen years, then adolescence to eighteen years, and adult after that. Puberty from twelve to nineteen years in boys, and from ten to seventeen years in girls. About this image Pre- and perinatal Biological Prenatal development Psychological Pre- and perinatal psychology Infancy Biological Infant Psychological Infant and child psychology Childhood Biological Child development · Child development stages · Toddler Psychological Infant and child psychology · Preadolescence Adolescence Biological Puberty Psychological Youth development · Adolescent psychology Young adulthood Psychological Young adult (psychology) Middle adulthood Biological Middle age Maturity Biological Ageing · Senescence Psychological Old age Legal and general definitions Minor (law) · Infancy · Child · Childhood · Adolescence · Age of majority · Adult Theorists and theories Bowlby—attachment · Brofenbrenner—ecological systems · Erikson—psychosocial dev. · Freud—psychosexual dev. · Kohlberg—moral dev. · Piaget—cognitive dev. · Vygotsky—cultural-historical psych. [show]v · d · eArticles of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights [show] General principles Article 1: Freedom, Egalitarianism, Dignity and Brotherhood Article 2: Universality of rights [show] International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights Article 1 and 2: Right to freedom from discrimination · Article 3: Right to life, liberty and security of person · Article 4: Freedom from slavery · Article 5: Freedom from torture and cruel and unusual punishment · Article 6: Right to personhood · Article 7: Equality before the law · Article 8: Right to effective remedy from the law · Article 9: Freedom from arbitrary arrest, detention and exile · Article 10: Right to a fair trial · Article 11.1: Presumption of innocence · Article 11.2: Prohibition of retrospective law · Article 12: Right to privacy · Article 13: Freedom of movement · Article 14: Right of asylum · Article 15: Right to a nationality · Article 16: Right to marriage and family life · Article 17: Right to property · Article 18: Freedom of thought, conscience and religion · Article 19: Freedom of opinion and expression · Article 20.1: Freedom of assembly · Article 20.2: Freedom of association · Article 21.1: Right to participation in government · Article 21.2: Right of equal access to public office · Article 21.3: Right to universal suffrage [show] International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights Article 1 and 2: Right to freedom from discrimination · Article 22: Right to social security · Article 23.1: Right to work · Article 23.2: Right to equal pay for equal work · Article 23.3: Right to just remuneration · Article 23.4: Right to join a trade union · Article 24: Right to rest and leisure · Article 25.1: Right to an adequate standard of living · Article 25.2: Right to special care and assistance for mothers and children · Article 26.1: Right to education · Article 26.2: Human rights education · Article 26.3: Right to choice of education · Article 27.1: Right to participate in culture · Article 27.2: Right to intellectual property [show] Context, limitations and duties Article 28: Social order · Article 29.1: Social responsibility · Article 29.2: Limitations of human rights · Article 29.3: The supremacy of the purposes and principles of the United Nations Article 30: Nothing in this Declaration may be interpreted as implying for any State, group or person any right to engage in any activity or to perform any act aimed at the destruction of any of the rights and freedoms set forth herein. Category:Human rights · Human rights portal Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Child" Categories: Childhood | Children | Developmental psychology | Humans

popcorn Return to the top

Popcorn or 'popping corn' is corn (maize) which expands from the kernel and puffs up when heated. Corn is able to pop because, unlike other grains, its kernels have a hard moisture-sealed hull and a dense starchy filling. This allows pressure to build inside the kernel until an explosive "pop" results. Some strains of corn are now cultivated specifically as popping corns. There are many techniques for popping corn. Commercial large-scale popcorn machines were invented by Charles Cretors in the late 19th century. Many types of small-scale home methods for popping corn also exist, with the most popular in the USA being prepackaged. Popcorn has both advocates and detractors. Some consider it to be a health food while others caution against it for a variety of reasons. Popcorn can also have non-food applications, ranging from holiday decorations to packaging materials. Contents [hide] * 1 History * 2 How popcorn pops o 2.1 Methods of popping o 2.2 Expansion and yield * 3 As a food o 3.1 Nutritional value o 3.2 Health risks * 4 Other uses * 5 See also * 6 References * 7 Additional reading * 8 External links History Popcorn was first discovered thousands of years ago by Native Americans in North America. One of the oldest forms of corn, evidence of popcorn from 3600 B.C. was found in New Mexico. The English who came to America in the 16th and 17th centuries learned about popcorn from the Native Americans. During the Great Depression, popcorn was comparatively cheap at 5-10 cents a bag and became popular. Thus, while other businesses failed, the popcorn business thrived and became a source of income for some struggling farmers. During World War II, sugar rations diminished candy production, causing Americans to eat three times more popcorn than they had before.[1] At least six localities (all in the Midwestern United States) claim to be the "Popcorn Capital of the World": Ridgway, Illinois; Valparaiso, Indiana; Van Buren, Indiana; Schaller, Iowa; Marion, Ohio; and North Loup, Nebraska. According to the USDA, most of the maize used for popcorn production is specifically planted for this purpose; most is grown in Nebraska and Indiana, with increasing area in Texas.[2] As the result of an elementary school project, popcorn became the official state snack food of Illinois.[3] How popcorn pops Kernel and popped popcorn Each kernel of popcorn contains a certain amount of moisture and oil. Unlike most other grains, the outer hull of the popcorn kernel is both strong and impervious to moisture, and the starch inside consists almost entirely of a hard, dense type.[4] As the oil and the water are heated past the boiling point, they turn the moisture in the kernel, which has a moisture-proof hull, into a superheated pressurized steam. Under these conditions, the starch inside the kernel gelatinizes, softens and becomes pliable. The pressure continues to increase until the breaking point of the hull is reached: a pressure of about 135 psi (930 kPa)[4] and a temperature of 180 °C (356 °F). The hull ruptures rapidly, causing a sudden drop in pressure inside the kernel and a corresponding rapid expansion of the steam, which expands the starch and proteins of the endosperm into airy foam. As the foam rapidly cools, the starch and protein polymers set into the familiar crispy puff.[4] Special varieties are grown to give improved popping yield. Some wild types will pop, but the cultivated strain is Zea mays averta, which is a special kind of flint corn. Methods of popping Although small quantities can be popped in a stovetop kettle in a home kitchen, commercial sale of freshly popped popcorn employs specially designed popcorn machines, which were invented in Chicago, Illinois by Charles Cretors in 1885. Cretors successfully introduced his invention at the Columbian Exposition in 1893. (At this same world's fair, F.W. Rueckheim introduced the first caramel corn; his brother, Louis, slightly altered the recipe and introduced it as Cracker Jack popcorn in 1896.[5]) Cretors' invention introduced the first patented steam-driven popcorn machine that popped corn in oil. Previously, vendors popped corn by holding a wire basket over an open flame. At best, the result was a hot, dry, unevenly cooked confection. The Cretors' machine popped corn in a mixture of one-third clarified butter, two-thirds lard, and salt. This mixture could withstand the 450 °F (232 °C) temperature needed to pop corn and it did without producing much smoke. A fire under a boiler created steam that drove a small engine; that engine drove the gears, shaft, and agitator that stirred the corn and powered the attention-attracting clown – the Toasty Roasty Man. A wire connected to the top of the cooking pan allowed the operator to disengage the drive mechanism, lift the cover, and dump popped corn into the storage bin beneath. Exhaust from the steam engine was piped to a hollow pan below the corn storage bin and kept freshly popped corn uniformly warm for the first time ever.[6] An in-home hot-air popcorn maker. A very different method of popcorn-making can still be seen on the streets of some Chinese cities today. The corn is poured into a large cast-iron canister- sometimes called a 'popcorn hammer'- that is then sealed with a heavy lid and slowly turned over a curbside fire in rotisserie fashion. When a pressure gauge on the canister reaches a certain level, it is removed from the fire, a large canvas sack is put over the lid, and the seal is released. With a huge boom, all of the popcorn explodes at once and is poured into the sack.[7][8][9] Individual consumers can also buy and use specialized popping appliances that typically generate no more than a gallon of popped corn per batch. Some of these appliances also accept a small volume of oil or melted butter to assist thermal transfer from a stationary heating element, but others are "air poppers" which rapidly circulate heated air up through the interior, keeping the unpopped kernels in motion to avoid burning and blowing the popped kernels out through the chute.[10] The great majority of popcorn sold for home consumption is now packaged for use in a microwave oven in a popcorn bag.[11] Expansion and yield Popping results are sensitive to the rate at which the kernels are heated. If heated too quickly, the steam in the outer layers of the kernel can reach high pressures and rupture the hull before the starch in the center of the kernel can fully gelatinize, leading to partially popped kernels with hard centers. Heating too slowly leads to entirely unpopped kernels: the tip of the kernel, where it attached to the cob, is not entirely moisture-proof, and when heated slowly, the steam can leak out of the tip fast enough to keep the pressure from rising sufficiently to break the hull and cause the pop.[12] Producers and sellers of popcorn consider two major factors in evaluating the quality of popcorn: what percentage of the kernels will pop, and how much each popped kernel expands. Expansion is an important factor to both the consumer and vendor. For the consumer, larger pieces of popcorn tend to be more tender and are associated with higher quality. For the grower, distributor, and vendor, expansion is closely correlated with profit: vendors such as theaters buy popcorn by weight and sell it by volume. For both these reasons, higher-expansion popcorn fetches a higher profit per unit weight. Popcorn will pop when freshly harvested, but not well: its high moisture content leads to poor expansion and chewy pieces of popcorn. Kernels with a high moisture content are also susceptible to mold when stored. For these reasons, popcorn growers and distributors dry the kernels until they reach the moisture level at which they expand the most. This differs by variety and conditions, but is generally in the range of 14–15% moisture by weight. If the kernels are over-dried, the expansion rate will suffer and the percentage of kernels that pop at all will decline. Two explanations exist for kernels which do not pop at proper temperatures, known in the popcorn industry as "old maids". The first is that unpopped kernels do not have enough moisture to create enough steam for an explosion. The second explanation, according to research led by Dr. Bruce Hamaker of Purdue University, is that the unpopped kernel may have a leaky hull. Popcorn varieties are broadly categorized by the shape of the kernels, the color of the kernels, or the shape of the popped corn. While the kernels may come in a variety of colors, the popped corn is always off-yellow or white as it is only the hull (or pericarp) that is colored. "Rice" type popcorns have a long kernel pointed at both ends; "pearl" type kernels are rounded at the top. Commercial popcorn production has moved mostly to pearl types.[13] Historically, pearl popcorns were usually yellow and rice popcorns usually white. Today both shapes are available in both colors, as well as others including black, red, and variegated. Commercial production is dominated by white and yellow.[14] "Mushroom"-shaped popcorn, left, is less fragile and less tender than "butterfly"-shaped, right. In popcorn jargon, a popped kernel of corn is known as a "flake". Two shapes of flakes are commercially important. "Butterfly" flakes are irregular in shape and have a number of protruding "wings". "Mushroom" flakes are largely ball-shaped, with few wings. Butterfly flakes are regarded as having better mouthfeel, with greater tenderness and less noticeable hulls. Mushroom flakes are less fragile than butterfly flakes and are therefore often used for packaged popcorn or confectionery, such as caramel corn.[14] The kernels from a single cob of popcorn may form both butterfly and mushroom flakes; hybrids that produce 100% butterfly flakes or 100% mushroom flakes exist, the latter developed only as recently as 1998.[14] Growing conditions and popping environment can also affect the butterfly-to-mushroom ratio. As a food Popcorn is usually served salted or sweetened. In North America, it is traditionally served salted, although sweetened versions, such as caramel corn and kettle corn, are also commonly available. In the United Kingdom, ready-made popcorn is available either salted or simply sweetened with sugar. Toffee (i.e. caramel) popcorn is also available, but tends to be more expensive. Popcorn is a popular snack at sporting events and in cinemas, where it has been served since 1912.[citation needed] The Boy Scouts of America sell popcorn door-to-door as a primary fundraiser, similar to Girl Scout cookies.[15] Nutritional value Popcorn, air-popped, no additives Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz) Energy 1,598 kJ (382 kcal) Carbohydrates 78 g Dietary fiber 15 g Fat 4 g Protein 12 g Thiamine (Vit. B1) 0.2 mg (15%) Riboflavin (Vit. B2) 0.3 mg (20%) Iron 2.7 mg (22%) One cup is 8 grams. Percentages are relative to US recommendations for adults. Source: USDA Nutrient database Air-popped popcorn is naturally high in fiber, low in calories and fat, contains no sodium, and is sugar free.[16] This can make it an attractive snack to people with dietary restrictions on the intake of calories, fat, and/or sodium. For the sake of flavor, however, large amounts of fat, sugar, and sodium are often added to prepared popcorn, which can quickly convert it to a very poor choice for those on restricted diets. One particularly notorious example of this first came to public attention in the mid-1990s, when the Center for Science in the Public Interest produced a report about "Movie Popcorn", which became the subject of a widespread publicity campaign. The movie theaters surveyed used coconut oil to pop the corn, and then topped it with butter or margarine. "A medium-size buttered popcorn", the report said, "contains more fat than a breakfast of bacon and eggs, a Big Mac and fries, and a steak dinner combined."[17] The practice continues today. For example, according to DietFacts.com, a small popcorn from Regal Cinema Group (the largest theater chain in the United States[18]) still contains 29 g of saturated fat,[19] as much as three Big Macs[20] and the equivalent of a full day-and-a-half's reference daily intake.[21] Health risks Popcorn is included on the list of foods that the American Academy of Pediatrics recommends not serving to children under four, because of the risk of choking.[22] Special "hulless" popcorn has been developed that offers an alternative for small children and for people with braces or other dental problems who may otherwise need to avoid popcorn. Microwaveable popcorn represents a special case, since it is designed to be cooked along with its various flavoring agents. One of these common artificial-butter flavorants, diacetyl, has been implicated in causing respiratory ailments.[23] Other uses Scent: Popcorn smell has an unusually attractive quality for human beings. This is largely because it contains high levels of the chemicals 6-acetyl-2,3,4,5-tetrahydropyridine and 2-acetyl-1-pyrroline, very powerful aroma compounds that are used by food and other industries to make products that either smell like popcorn (or bread, or other foods containing the compound in nature), or for other purposes. Decoration: Popcorn, threaded onto a string, is used as a wall or Christmas tree decoration in some parts of North America,[24][25] as well as on the Balkan peninsula.[26] Packing material: Some shipping companies have experimented with using popcorn as a biodegradable replacement for expanded polystyrene packing material. However, popcorn has numerous undesirable properties as a packing material, including attractiveness to pests, flammability, and a higher cost and greater density than expanded polystyrene. A more processed form of expanded corn foam has been developed to overcome some of these limitations.[27] Novelty: The world's largest popcorn ball was unveiled in October 2006 in Lake Forest, Illinois. It weighed 3,415 pounds (1550 kilograms), measured 8 feet (2.4 m) in diameter, and had a circumference of 24.6 feet (8 m).

cotton candy Return to the top

Cotton candy (U.S.), candyfloss (UK, Ireland, New Zealand and South Africa), or fairy floss (Australia) is a form of spun sugar. Since it is mostly air, servings are usually large. Cotton candy is often served at fairgrounds or circuses. Food coloring is used to change the natural white color. A typical serving on a stick is at least one ounce and contains about 100 to 115 calories. It is sometimes sold in bags containing several servings.[1][2][3] A similar confectionery is the Persian Pashmak, and the Turkish PiÅŸmaniye, although the latter is made with flour in addition to sugar. Contents [hide] * 1 History * 2 Production * 3 Texture * 4 References * 5 External links [edit] History Cotton candy was first recorded around Mid-18th Century. At that time, spun sugar was an expensive, labor-intensive endeavor and was not generally available to the average person.[4] Machine-spun cotton candy was invented in 1897 by William Morrison and John C. Wharton and first introduced to a wide audience at the 1904 World's Fair as "Fairy Floss"[5] with great success, selling 68,655 boxes at the then-high $0.25, half the cost of admission to the fair. Fairy floss was renamed to "cotton candy" in the 1920s.[6] Tootsie Roll of Canada Ltd. has a bagged product called Fluffy Stuff that it claims was introduced at the 1893 World's Fair.[7] The United States celebrates National Cotton Candy Day on December 7.[6] [edit] Production Typical machines used to make cotton candy include a spinning head enclosing a small "sugar reserve" bowl into which a charge of granulated, colored sugar (or separate sugar and food coloring) is poured. Heaters near the rim of the head melt the sugar, which is squeezed out through tiny holes by centrifugal force. Precolored sugar packaged specially for the process is milled with melting characteristics and a crystal size optimized for the head and heated holes; granulated sugar used in baking contain fine crystals which spin out unmelted, while rock sugar crystals are too large to properly contact the heater, slowing the production of floss. The molten sugar solidifies in the air and is caught in a larger bowl which totally surrounds the spinning head. Left to operate for a period, the cottonlike product builds up on the inside walls of the larger bowl, at which point the machine operator twirls a stick, cone, or their hands around the rim of the large catching bowl, gathering the sugar strands into portions which are served on stick or cone, or in plastic bags. As the sugar reserve bowl empties, the operator recharges it with more feedstock. The product is sensitive to humidity, and in humid summer locales, the process can be messy and sticky. Modern innovations in Cotton Candy equipment include vending machines which automatically produce single-servings of the product, developed in the United Kingdom[8] and in Taiwan,[9] and lighted or glowing sticks.[10] [edit] Texture Sticky and sweet, it dissolves quickly in the mouth (due to its amorphous nature) although it feels like wool to the touch. It does not have much of an aroma although the machine itself has a cooked sugar smell when in operation. It is soft and fluffy when dry. When it comes in contact with moisture, it becomes sticky and damp. Because the sugar is hygroscopic, and has a very large surface area, it will become coarser, harder and generally less "flossy" once exposed to the atmosphere

tent Return to the top

A tent is a shelter consisting of sheets of fabric or other material draped over or attached to a frame of poles or attached to a supporting rope. While smaller tents may be free-standing or attached to the ground, large tents are usually anchored using guy ropes tied to stakes or tent pegs. First used as portable homes by nomadic peoples, tents are now more often used for recreational camping and temporary shelters.[citation needed] Tents range in size from "bivouac" structures just big enough for one person to sleep in up to huge (circus) tents capable of seating thousands of people. The bulk of this article is concerned with tents used for recreational camping which have sleeping space for one to ten people. Larger tents are discussed in a separate section below. Tents for recreational camping fall into two categories. Tents intended to be carried by backpackers are the smallest and lightest type. Smaller tents may be sufficiently light that they can be carried for long distances on a touring bicycle, a boat, or even a person's back. The military organisations of most nations use such tents to temporarily house troops living and working under field conditions. The second type are larger, heavier tents which are usually carried in a car or other vehicle. Depending on tent size and the experience of the person or people involved, such tents can usually be assembled (pitched) in between 5 and 25 minutes; disassembly (striking) takes a similar length of time. Some very specialised tents have spring-loaded poles and can be 'pitched' in seconds, but take somewhat longer to strike. Contents [hide] * 1 History * 2 Use o 2.1 Traditional o 2.2 Military o 2.3 Recreational o 2.4 Emergency * 3 General considerations * 4 List of traditional tent types * 5 Parts of a modern tent * 6 Design factors * 7 Shelters * 8 Current tent styles o 8.1 Rigid poles o 8.2 Flexible poles o 8.3 Inflatable airbeams * 9 Older tent styles * 10 Marquees and larger tents * 11 Influence on building design * 12 See also * 13 References * 14 External links [edit] History Tents are mentioned in Genesis 4:20 where Jabal is described as 'the first to live in tents and raise sheep and goats' (CEV) [edit] Use Tents are used as habitation by nomads, recreational campers, and disaster victims. Tents are typically used as overhead shelter for festivals, weddings, backyard parties, and major corporate events. They are also used for excavation (construction) covers, industrial shelters. [edit] Traditional A Berber tent near Zagora, Morocco A Bedouin tent in Petra (Jordan) Tents have traditionally been used by nomadic people all over the world, such as Native Americans, Mongolian and Tibetan Nomads, and the Bedouin. [edit] Military Armies all over the world have long used tents as part of their working life. Tents are preferred by the military for their relatively quick setup and take down times, compared to more traditional shelters. One of the world's largest users of tents is the US Department of Defense. The US Department of Defense has strict rules on tent quality and tent specifications. The most common tent uses for the military are temporary barracks (sleeping quarters), DFAC buildings (dining facilities), Forward Operating Bases (FOBs), After Action Review (AAR), Tactical Operations Center (TOC), Morale, Welfare, and Recreation (MWR) facilities, and security checkpoints. Furthermore, most of these tents are set up and operated through the support of Natick Soldier Systems Center. One of the most popular military designs currently fielded by the US DoD is the TEMPER Tent. TEMPER is an acronym for Tent Expandable Modular PERsonnel. The U.S. military is beginning to use a more modern tent called the deployable rapid assembly shelter or DRASH. Similar quick erect shelters are offered by Utilis USA. It is a collapsible tent with provisions for air conditioning and heating.[1] [edit] Recreational A modern two person, lightweight hiking dome tent. It is tied to rocks as there is nowhere to drive stakes on this rock shelf. Camping is a popular form of recreation which often involves the use of tents. A tent is economical and practical because of its portability and low environmental impact. These qualities are necessary when used in the wilderness or backcountry. [edit] Emergency Tents are often used in humanitarian emergencies, such as war, earthquakes and fire. The primary choice of tents in humanitarian emergencies are canvas tents, because a cotton canvas tent allows functional breathability while serving the purpose of temporary shelter. At times, however, these temporary shelters become a permanent or semi-permanent home, especially for displaced people living in refugee camps or shanty towns who can't return to their former home and for whom no replacement homes are made available. Most global NGO's maintain an emergency stockpile of tents strategically placed all over the world to service their requirements. [edit] General considerations A simple tented shelter. Tent fabric may be made of many materials including cotton (canvas), nylon, felt and polyester. Cotton absorbs water, so it can become very heavy when wet, but the associated swelling tends to block any minute holes so that wet cotton is more waterproof than dry cotton. Cotton tents were often treated with paraffin to enhance water resistance. Nylon and polyester are much lighter than cotton and do not absorb much water; with suitable coatings they can be very waterproof, but they tend to deteriorate over time due to a slow chemical breakdown caused by ultraviolet light. The most common treatments to make fabric waterproof are silicone impregnation or polyurethane coating. Since stitching makes tiny holes in a fabric seams are often sealed or taped to block these holes and maintain waterproofness, though in practice a carefully sewn seam can be waterproof. Rain resistance is measured as a hydrostatic head in millimetres (mm). This indicates the pressure of water needed to penetrate a fabric. Heavy or wind-driven rain has a higher pressure than light rain. Standing on a groundsheet increases the pressure on any water underneath. Fabric with a hydrostatic head rating of 1000 mm or less is best regarded as shower resistant, with 1500 mm being usually suitable for summer camping. Tents for year-round use generally have at least 2000 mm; expedition tents intended for extreme conditions are often rated at 3000 mm. Where quoted, groundsheets may be rated for 5000 mm or more. Many tent manufacturers indicate capacity by such phrases as "3 berth" or "2 person". These numbers indicate how many people the manufacturer thinks can use the tent, though these numbers do not always allow for any personal belongings, such as luggage, inflatable mattresses, camp beds, cots, etc., nor do they always allow for people who are of above average height. Checking the quoted sizes of sleeping areas reveals that several manufacturers consider that a width of 150 cm (5 feet) is enough for three people — snug is the operative word. Experience indicates that camping may be more comfortable if the actual number of occupants is one or even two less than the manufacturer's suggestion, though different manufacturers have different standards for space requirement and there is no accepted standard. If the tent will be used where mosquitoes, gnats and other biting insects are expected, it should have all window, vent and door openings covered with fine-mesh "no-see-um" netting. Tents can be improvised using waterproof fabric, string, and sticks. This allows them to be easily built and moved. [edit] List of traditional tent types * Bell tent * Chum * Fly * Kohte * Lavvu, Sami tent * Loue * Nomadic tents * Pandal * Sibley tent * Tarp tent * Tipi * Wigwam * Yurt [edit] Parts of a modern tent A variety of dome tents. Small dome and tunnel tents are the most popular tents amongst travellers due to their light weight (3kg) and quick/easy placement There are three basic configurations of tents, each of which may appear with many variations: Single skin (USA: single wall): Only one waterproof layer of fabric is used, comprising at least roof and walls. To minimize condensation on the inside of the tent, some expedition tents use waterproof/breathable fabrics. Single skin with flysheet: A waterproof flysheet or rain fly is suspended over and clear of the roof of the tent; it often overlaps the tent roof slightly, but does not extend down the sides or ends of the tent. Double skin (USA: double wall): The outer tent is a waterproof layer which extends down to the ground all round. One or more 'inner tents' provide sleeping areas. The outer tent may be just a little larger than the inner tent, or it may be a lot larger and provide a covered living area separate from the sleeping area(s). An inner tent need not be waterproof. The double layer may provide some insulation. Components: * A flysheet or rain fly (found only in double skin tents) is used to protect the actual tent from water. A flysheet is waterproof on the outside and also provides a surface to collect condensation on the inside, which then runs down to the ground. When a flysheet is used, it is important that there be no contact with the inner tent it is protecting; this keeps the inner dry. 'Expedition' tents often have extra poles to help ensure that wind does not blow the two layers into contact. * The inner tent comprises the main living and sleeping area of the tent. For double skin tents, the inner tent (often mesh) is not waterproof since it is protected by the rain fly. For single skin tents, the inner tent is often made of waterproof-breathable material that prevents liquid water from penetrating the inside of the tent, but still allows water vapour to be transported out. * The vestibule (they can be plural) is a floorless covered section located outside a tent entrance that is typically used for the storage of boots, packs, and other small equipment. Vestibules are often used for activities that are preferably not performed within the tent itself, such as cooking or equipment cleaning. Vestibules may be included as a removable attachment or integrated into the tent itself. Vestibule size varies considerably, ranging from extended areas with more surface than the inner tent down to practically nothing. * A groundsheet is used to provide a waterproof barrier between the ground and a sleeping bag. With double skin tents, the inner tents normally have a sewn-in groundsheet, but a separate flat groundsheet may be provided for any living area. With single skin tents, the groundsheet may be sewn in or separate. Normal practice with sewn-in groundsheets is for the groundsheet to extend some 15 cm (6 in) up the lower part of the walls (sometimes called a 'bathtub' arrangement); this copes with a situation where water seeps under the side walls of the tent. Separate groundsheets allow load-sharing when backpacking, and may make it easier to pitch and strike a tent, but they provide less protection against insects etc. getting into the sleeping area; also, if any part of a separate groundsheet protrudes from under the side walls, then it provides a ready path for moisture to flow into the tent. * The poles provide structural support. They may be collapsible for easier transport and storage. Some designs use rigid poles, typically made of metal, or sometimes wood. Other designs use semi-rigid poles, typically made of fiberglass, or sometimes of special metal alloys. Another pole type uses inflatable beams as the structural support. Some tents, particularly very lightweight models, actually use hiking poles as their structural supports. A wooden stake supporting a tent. * Stakes (or tent pegs) or screws may be used to fasten the tent to the ground. Some are attached to guy ropes that pull outward on the poles and/or fabric to help shape the tent or give it additional stability. Others are used to anchor the bottom edge of the fabric to the ground. Pegs may be made of wood, plastic, or metal. A mallet may be needed to drive thicker pegs into the ground. Skewer metal pegs consisting essentially of a length of thick wire with a hook on one end can usually be inserted by hand, except if the ground is very hard, but may not be as strong as more substantial pegs. Pegs used for guy ropes should not be driven vertically into the ground; instead for maximum strength they should be driven in at an angle so that the peg is at right angles to the guy rope attached to it. Lighter free standing tents may need some guy ropes and pegs to prevent them from being blown away. * Air vents help reduce the effects of condensation. When people breathe, they expel quite a lot of water vapour. If the outside of the tent is colder than the inside (the usual case), then this vapour will condense on the inside of the tent, on any clothing lying about, on the outside of a sleeping bag, etc. Hence ventilation helps to remove the vapour, although this may let in cold air. * An optional tent footprint or groundsheet protector may be used. This is a separate flat groundsheet which goes underneath the main groundsheet, and is slightly smaller than that groundsheet. The intention is to protect the main groundsheet, especially when camping on rough terrain, since it is much cheaper to replace a separate footprint groundsheet than it is to replace a sewn-in groundsheet. [edit] Design factors A Nez Perce tipi Many factors affect tent design, including: * Financial cost * Intended use o Backpacking/tramping, lengthy duration for carrying the tent. Weight and size are the most crucial factors. o Touring, high frequency of pitching and striking the tent. Ease of pitching/striking the tent is important. o Static, staying at one campsite for a week or two at a time. A comfortable camping experience is the target. * Camping season A tent required only for summer use may be very different from one to be used in the depths of winter. Manufacturers label tents as one-season, two/three-season, three/four season, four season, etc. A one-season tent is generally for summer use only, and may only be capable of coping with light showers. A three-season tent is for spring/summer/autumn and should be capable of withstanding fairly heavy rain, or very light snow. A four-season tent should be suitable for winter camping in all but the most extreme conditions; an expedition tent (for mountain conditions) should be strong enough to cope with heavy snow, strong winds, as well as heavy rain. Some tents are sold, quite cheaply, as festival tents; these may be suitable only for camping in dry weather, and may not even be showerproof. A large family tent for car-camping, with a gazebo A small, two-person, backpacking tent * Size of tent o The number and age of people who will be camping determines how big and what features the sleeping area(s) must have. o To allow for inclement weather, some covered living space separate from the sleeping area(s) may be desirable. Alternatively, cyclists on a camping trip may wish for enough covered space to keep their bicycles out of the weather. o To allow for sunshine, an awning to provide shade may not go amiss. Some tents have additional poles so that the fabric doorways can be used as awnings. o Internal height. Manufacturers quote the maximum internal height, but the usable internal height may be a little lower, depending on the tent style. Ridge tents have a steeply sloping roof so the whole height is rarely usable. Dome tents slope gently in all directions from the peak enabling nearly the entire height to be usable for a large portion of the tent. Tunnel tents have a good usable height along the center line. Frame and cabin tents have gently sloping roofs and near vertical walls. To fully evaluate the usable space in a tent, both the maximum wall height and slope must be considered. There are four useful heights used to evaluate appropriate tent height: lie down only, sit, kneel, stand. The exact heights at which these apply depend on the heights of the campers involved; those over 182 cm (6 ft) are likely to have less choice of tents than those who are somewhat shorter. As a starting point, sitting height is often between 90 and 105 cm (3 ft to 3 ft 6 in), and kneeling height may be between 120 and 150 cm (4 ft to 5 ft). These different heights are useful for evaluating whether certain tasks, such as changing clothes, can be accomplished in the tent. * Number of sleeping areas Larger tents sometimes are partitioned into separate sleeping areas or rooms. A tent described as viz-a-viz usually has two separate sleeping areas with a living area in between. * Tent color In some areas of some countries, there may be restrictions as to what color tents can be, thereby reducing the visual impact of campsites. The best colors for low visibility are green, brown, or tans. An opposing consideration is of safety and calls for visible unnatural colors, such as bright yellow or red. Bright-colored tents can be easily spotted from the air in cases of an emergency. They are important in places where vehicles may not notice a low-visibility tent and run over its unsuspecting occupiers. Campers wandering away from camp will find their way back more easily if their tent is highly visible. Additionally, lost hikers may find rescue by spotting a visible camp site from afar. * Setup effort Some styles of camping and living outdoors entails quick setup of tents. As a general rule, the more robust the tent, the more time and effort needed to set up and dismantle, though specific design attention on quick setup (possibly in exchange for cost and/or weight) can alter that (for example, the Swedish manufacturer Hilleberg specify a design goal that their toughest tents should be easily pitched by a single camper in inclement weather while wearing mittens, but the implementation of that adds to their price). The style of the tent also has a great impact on its ease of use. [edit] Shelters gazebo provides a useful shelter A dining fly Shelters are not normally used for sleeping. Instead they may act as a store or provide shelter from sun, rain, or dew. * A flysheet consists of a single rectangular sheet of material. Two opposite sides are held up in the middle by poles, or sometimes just a rope between conveniently placed trees. The tops of the poles are attached via guy ropes to pegs, in order to keep the poles upright. Additional guy ropes are attached to the lower edges to pull them outwards away from the poles. * A Gazebo uses a framework of metal poles to support a roof. This structure provides a lot more usable space than does a flysheet, since the gently sloping roof allows for a reasonable amount of headroom even at the edges (like a frame tent). Because a gazebo is free-standing, it is often used as a shelter for a temporary shop at a fair or street market. * Beach tents are often a simplified form of dome tent and provide a useful (relatively sand-free) place to temporarily store beach equipment, but are at most showerproof. Some beach tents use specially treated fabric which is opaque to ultra-violet light, and so provide some protection against sunburn. Maximum height is typically about 120 cm (4 ft), and they are usually not large enough for an adult to lie down in. * Fishermen's tents are also modified dome tents, often with a projecting awning high enough to sit under, but sometimes with no closable doorway. [edit] Current tent styles With modern materials, tent manufacturers have great freedom to vary types and styles and shapes of tents. * The poles effectively hold the tent in the required shape. * Poles which dismantle for ease of transport are either colour-coded or linked by chain or cord, so there is little doubt as to which poles connect where. * Relatively few guy ropes are needed (sometimes none). * The exact positioning of any guy ropes is not too critical. [edit] Rigid poles Many tents which use rigid steel poles are free-standing and do not require guy ropes, though they may require pegs around the bottom edge of the fabric. These tents are usually so heavy (25 to 80 kg) that it takes a rather strong wind to blow them away. * Frame tents are double-skin tents. They have a living area and one or more cotton/nylon/polyester inner tents. The outer tent is draped over a free-standing steel frame, and may be made of canvas or polyester (the latter often has a hydrostatic head of 3000mm, i.e. three season camping). The living area is generally at least as large as the sleeping area, and there may be a specific section with window and extra air vents for use as a kitchen. The walls are nearly vertical and are typically about 150 to 180 cm high (5 ft to 6 ft). The center of the gently sloping roof is often 210 cm (7 ft) high or more and provides reasonable headroom throughout. The smaller 2-person models were less than 3 metres square (10 ft), but these have largely been replaced by dome or tunnel tents. The larger 8-person models may exceed 5 metres (16 ft) in length and/or width. * Cabin tents are single-skin tents used mainly in the USA. They often have nylon walls, polyester roof, and a polyethylene floor, plus an awning at one or both ends. With a hydrostatic head of only 1000 mm, they may best be considered as summer tents. Removable internal dividers allow the cabin to be split into 'rooms'. Sizes may range from 13 ft by 8 ft (2 rooms) up to 25 ft by 10 ft (4 rooms), with wall and roof heights similar to those of frame tents. There are three separate pole units, with each unit consisting of two uprights and a connecting ridge. These pole units support the centre and ends of the roof, and are usually outside the tent. [edit] Flexible poles Flexible poles used for tents in this section are typically between 3 and 6 metres long (10 and 20 feet). Cheap poles are made of tubes of fibreglass with an external diameter less than 1 cm (1/3 inch), whereas more expensive aluminium alloys are the material of choice for added strength and durability. For ease of transportation, these poles are made in sections some 30 cm to 60 cm long (1 to 2 ft), with one end of each section having a socket into which the next section can fit. For ease of assembly, the sections for each pole are often connected by an internal elastic cord running the entire length of the pole. This is a basic dome tent, shown without rain fly or stakes. * Dome tents have a very simple structure and are available in a wide variety of sizes ranging from lightweight 2-person tents with limited headroom up to 6 or 9-person tents with headroom exceeding 180 cm (6 ft). These may be single wall, or single-wall with partial flysheet, or double wall. Depending on the pole arrangement, some models pitch outer-tent first, while others pitch inner-tent first. The former helps keep the inner tent dry, but the latter is easier to pitch. The basic dome has a rectangular floor and two poles which cross at the peak; each pole runs in a smooth curve from one bottom corner, up to the peak, and then down to the diagonally opposite bottom corner. There are usually special fittings at each corner which fit into sockets at the ends of each pole - pole tension keeps everything in shape. The poles can run on either the inside or outside of the tent fabric. When located on the interior, poles are held in place by a variety of means including hook and loop style straps, clips, and other fastening hardware. Poles that are located on the outside of the tent fabric are attached via fabric pole sleeves or plastic clips. Dome tents do not require guy ropes and pegs for structural integrity as they are considered free-standing, but must be pegged down in high winds. The basic dome design has been modified extensively, producing tents with three poles, tents with irregularly-shaped bases, and other unusual types. A common variation is to add a third pole between two adjacent corners; this is angled away from the tent and supports an extension of the flysheet, to give a porch/storage area. Tunnel tent Tent used by mountaineers in Nepal * Tunnel tents may offer more usable internal space than a dome tent with the same ground area, but almost always need guy ropes and pegs to stay upright. These are almost always double wall tents. Sizes range from 1-person tents with very limited headroom up to 8 or 10-person tents with headroom exceeding 180 cm (6 ft). A basic tunnel tent uses two or more flexible poles, arranged as parallel hoops, with tent fabric attached to form a half-cylinder or tapering tunnel. The most common designs have a sleeping area at one end and a vestibule area at the other, though vestibules (possibly extended) at each end are not uncommon, or vis-a-vis sleeping at either end and a central opening to a common vestibule area are made too. * Hybrid dome/tunnel tents are now common. One variation is to use a basic dome as the sleeping area; one or two hooped poles to one side are linked by a tunnel to the dome to provide a porch. Another variation is to use a large dome as the living area, with up to 4 tunnel extensions to provide sleeping areas. * Geodesic tents are essentially dome tents with 2 or more extra poles which criss-cross the normal two poles to help support the basic shape and minimise the amount of unsupported fabric. This makes them more suitable for use in snowy conditions and in strong winds. To help withstand strong winds they are rarely more than 120 or 150 cm high (4 to 5 ft). * Single-hoop tents use just one flexible pole and are often sold as light-weight 1 or 2-person tents. These are the modern equivalent of older style pup tents, and have the same feature of somewhat limited headroom. Different styles may have the pole going either along or across the tent. * The pop-up tent is a recent innovation. This type of tent is equipped with built-in very flexible hoops so that when the tent is unpacked, it springs into shape immediately, and so is extremely easy to set up. Such tents are usually single-skinned and are generally aimed at the one-season or children's end of the market; their high flexibility makes them unsuitable for use in windy situations. After use the tent is packed down into a thick disc shape. [edit] Inflatable airbeams Inflatable pole supports, also known as airbeams, serve as rigid structural supports when inflated but are soft and pliable when deflated. Tents using such technology are neither commonly used nor widely accepted and are available from a very limited number of suppliers. Much like a bicycle tube and tire, airbeams are often composed of a highly dimensionally stable (i.e. no stretch) fabric sleeve and an air-holding inner bladder. However, other airbeam constructions consist of coated fabrics that are cut and manufactured to its intended shape by a method such as thermal welding. Depending on the desired tent size, airbeams can be anywhere from 2-40 inches in diameter, inflated to different pressures.[2] High pressure airbeams (40-80 psi) that are filled by compressors are most often used in larger shelters, whereas low pressure beams (5-7 psi) are preferred for recreational use.[3] The relatively low pressure enables the use of a manual pump to inflate the airbeam to the desired level. Airbeams have the unique quality of bending, rather than breaking, when overloaded. Tents that use inflatable airbeams are structured almost identically to those that use flexible poles. Inflatable airbeam tunnel tent * Dome tents that use inflatable airbeam support are available in a variety of sizes ranging from lightweight 2-person to larger 6+ person shelters, and are virtually identical to the arrangement of flexible-pole supported dome tents. Beams are usually integrated into the tent shell such that they do not have to be reinserted every time setup occurs. Airbeams can be located on either the inside or outside of the tent shell. Similar to the pole-supported construction, airbeam supported dome tents are free standing but should be staked out with pegs and guyout lines to increase stability and strength. * Tunnel tents are a common form of airbeam supported tents because their size can be easily modified by adding additional hoops. Military applications use this style of tent for a range of purposes including medical shelters, helicopter enclosures, and airplane hangars.[4] In these constructions, hoops are generally identical in size. In commercial airbeam supported tents, the hoops can be different sizes. Tunnel tents tend to withstand high winds well because of their low profile shape. However, the tents are not freestanding and must be anchored and guyed out securely.

fiesta Return to the top

Una fiesta es una reunión de personas para celebrar un acontecimiento o divertirse. Por lo general, una fiesta suele acompañarse de comida y bebida, y a menudo también de música y baile, habitualmente viene acompañada tambien de una "irene" que marca la diferencia del nivel maximo de desfase. Algunas fiestas se llevan a cabo en honor de una persona, día o evento concretos; a este tipo de fiestas también se les suele denominar celebraciones o conmemoraciones. Las fiestas pueden ser privadas o públicas. En las fiestas privadas, un anfitrión se encarga de su organización y de seleccionar a los invitados. Las fiestas públicas, en cambio, se suelen celebrar en los pubes y bares de una localidad (zona de copas) o en lugares acotados habilitados para tal fin. En cualquiera de los dos casos, a los invitados se les puede cobrar por su asistencia. Contenido [ocultar] * 1 La ocasión * 2 El lugar * 3 La luz * 4 Tipos de fiestas * 5 Véase también * 6 Enlaces externos [editar] La ocasión Cualquier circunstancia, siempre que sea positiva, es apropiada para la organización de una fiesta. Por ejemplo, el final de los exámenes, el inicio de las vacaciones, un acontecimiento familiar (boda, bautizo, comunión, etc.) son situaciones más que propicias para celebrar una fiesta. Sin embargo, el acontecimiento por excelencia que engendra la mayoría de las fiestas es la celebración de un cumpleaños. Los días en que mejor se acoge la convocatoria para una fiesta son, por razones obvias, las vísperas de festivo y fines de semana, es decir, los sábados. Para formalizar la convocatoria de la misma, hay que tener en cuenta, lógicamente, la fecha de dicha celebración, además de las costumbres de los invitados. Si se establece, por ejemplo, en vísperas de Semana Santa o de otra festividad señalada, lo más probable es que la mayoría de tus futuros asistentes se encuentren de viaje o en su segunda residencia. Por eso hay que ser precavido. No es conveniente organizar una gala el día de la inauguración de las Olimpiadas o el día de la final de la copa del mundo de fútbol si muchos de los invitados son aficionados al deporte. Del mismo modo, puede que no sea buena idea montar una fiesta cundo se celebre un espectáculo relevante en la ciudad, como por ejemplo: un concierto de U2, se juega un Real Madrid - F.C. Barcelona, etc. En definitiva, hay que atar todos los cabos para cerciorarse de que puedan acudir la mayoría de los invitados. Salvo para fiestas infantiles o de personas mayores, las últimas horas de la tarde y toda la noche, sin limitaciones constituyen momentos preciosos para la organización de un festejo. La noche tiene un encanto misterioso y bohemio que invita a la desinhibición y la búsqueda de nuevas sensaciones. La hora de comienzo, por su parte, dependerá tanto de la edad de los participantes, como de la índole de la reunión. Por lo demás, hay que tener en cuenta que la hora de convocatoria puede llevar implícitas determinadas obligaciones: por ejemplo, en una reunión que comience a las ocho de la noche, los invitados entenderán que se va a saciar su hambre con unos entremeses. [editar] El lugar El lugar de celebración de una fiesta no es determinante para conseguir un gran éxito. Una celebración festiva puede ser igualmente divertida en un local público, en una casa particular, en un solar o en un pabellón de deportes. Lo que sí resulta verdaderamente importante es que la capacidad del recinto sea la adecuada al número de asistentes. Una veintena de personas bailando en una plaza de toros difícilmente lograrán divertirse por más esfuerzos que realicen. Por ello es preciso calcular primero el número de asistentes a la reunión. Lo importante es que se encuentren cómodos durante la fiesta pero que el espacio no sea tan amplio como para perder la sensación de unidad. Si hay que escoger entre quedarse corto o que sobre terreno, es preferible pecar de lo primero, ya que el éxito de toda celebración reside en que los invitados se sientan miembros de un grupo y tengan la posibilidad de comunicarse con todos ellos. Si se estima que el sitio escogido excede en muchos metros cuadrados de lo necesario, hay que intentar acotarlo de la manera más discreta. Dependiendo del lugar de celebración, se presentan diferentes soluciones: * En una casa particular, clausurando algunas habitaciones periféricas se conseguirá reducir el espacio hábil. * Para lugares abiertos (jardines, campos, plazas, etc.), las soluciones que se presentan son múltiples: vallas, barreras naturales (setos, arbustos...), cintas atadas a los árboles, etc. * Cuando hablamos de un restaurante que no tiene comedores individuales, poner un biombo separador constituye el recurso más socorrido y habitual. * En un bar, se puede limitar el acceso a una parte del mismo. Ninos con linterna de estrella-formó en la fiesta de "Medio-otoño" en Vietnam. Es conveniente designar un lugar principal en el que vaya a desarrollarse la parte central de la fiesta y habilitarlo como tal. Por ello el lugar de mayor concurrencia suele coincidir con el que contiene la comida y bebida o la música. Situando en un mismo sitio estos tres elementos se habrá conseguido centralizar la reunión. Si se espera que acuda a la fiesta demasiada gente para las dimensiones del área principal, no hay que inquietarse. Simplemente, hay que preparar algunos espacios laterales que sirvan de desahogo. En el caso de una vivienda particular, abre alguna habitación pequeña donde la gente pueda expandirse y descansar. En estos lugares de reposo, la música debe oírse a menor volumen mientras que la intensidad de la luz puede aumentarse para permitir descansar la vista. Abre las ventanas y aliviarás el calor de la sala contigua a la par que eliminas el olor y el humo del tabaco. Por último, coloca un grupo de sillas y una mesa y así, darás la oportunidad a los menos marchosos de mantener una tertulia sosegada. En cuanto al asunto de si deben existir sillas y butacas para sentarse, todo va a depender del tipo de fiesta que se quiera organizar. Si lo que queremos es una reunión tranquila para conversar los los amigos o familiares, es evidente que se deben disponer asientos abundantes ya sea en uno o en varios corros, con una mesa en el centro de cada uno para colocar vasos y botellas. En caso contrario, es mejor dejar que la gente permanezca en pie para que pueda relacionarse con el resto de invitados y no formar corrillos que los aíslen. Algunos establecimientos públicos se alquilan total o parcialmente para celebración de fiestas privadas. Determinados bares o discotecas pueden cerrar sus puertas al público habitual si se llega a un acuerdo satisfactorio con el encargado. Las ventajas son evidentes: * La atención a prestar a los invitados es infinitamente menor * También es menor es el esfuerzo de organización previo * Se evita tener que limpiar y recoger posteriormente. Por el contrario, el margen de maniobra del organizador en la concepción y desarrollo de la fiesta se limita. Posiblemente, ni la decoración del local, ni la luz, ni la música queden a su elección, aunque todo dependerá de sus habilidades negociadoras. Otro dato a tener en cuenta a la hora de elegir la ubicación de la celebración, es la existencia de servicios con suficiente capacidad para el conjunto de invitados. Aunque esto parece obvio, no lo es tanto si nos referimos a lugares en los que no existe suministro de agua, como por ejemplo: un descampado, un solar, etc. Un contratiempo como el tener que hacer colas para evacuar, puede hundir literalmente una fiesta. [editar] La luz La luz es un elemento importante para crear el ambiente adecuado al tipo de fiesta que se quiera organizar. En principio, si se trata de una reunión social en la que sólo se pretende conversar y pasar un buen rato, no será necesario modificar la iluminación habitual de la habitación en que se vaya a celebrar, como en una fiesta infantil o aquélla en las que primen los juegos o los bailes de grupo. Pero si hablamos de otro tipo de celebraciones, las posibilidades que ofrecen las luces son infinitas: cambios de intensidad, bombillas de colores, focos proyectados, etc. En un primer momento, para recibir a la gente y para los primeros contactos, es bueno mantener todas las bombillas encendidas. A la media hora de contar con todos tus invitados comienza a reducir la iluminación. Si dispones de un dispositivo de modulación de luminosidad (muy habitual, en instalaciones de focos halógenos) la solución es sencilla. En caso contrario, se pueden ir apagando lámparas conforme va avanzando la fiesta. La amplia luminosidad se relaciona habitualmente con el día. Una reunión a las seis de la tarde es difícilmente concebible sin luz. Sin embargo, a partir de las once, la falta de iluminación no debe resultar extraña. La ausencia de luz desinhibe y aproxima a las personas. En los bares de noche, es apreciable cómo las bombillas se hallan generalmente moduladas a la baja, llegando en las discotecas, prácticamente a desaparecer la luminosidad en la pista. Las velas crean un entorno acogedor e intimista. Si la fiesta va a tener lugar al aire libre, en una calurosa noche de verano, se puede plantear el disponer pequeñas velas sobre las mesas o indicando las vías de acceso. No es necesario colocar sino unos cuantos puntos de luz para que se encuentre la bebida y la comida y sobre el resto de muebles que se hayan distribuido por el recinto para proporcionar una iluminación bohemia y acogedora

reservations Return to the top

A table reservation is an arrangement made in advance to have a table available at a restaurant. While most restaurants do not require a reservation, and some have no policy for making one, higher-end restaurants do tend to require a reservation, and may have tables booked for weeks in advance.[1] At particularly exclusive venues, it may be impossible to make a reservation on the same day as the planned visit.[1] "It's always smart to inquire about a restaurant's reservation policy. Some will only reserve for large parties of six or more".[1] Modernly, many restaurants have replaced the traditional pencil and notebook with an online reservation system.[2] Some websites exist which provide this service for multiple venues, such as OpenTable and RestaurantReservations.com. Reservations for later dining times may prove problematic, as the restaurant may have a backlog which will require the reservation-holders to wait beyond their stated arrival time. In addition, diners with a late reservation face a higher chance that the restaurant will run out of necessary ingredients for a particularly popular dish.[1] It is generally considered polite to call and cancel a reservation once it is known that the event can not be made.[1] Courts have tended not to impose substantial penalties on restaurants that fail to honor reservations

pony Return to the top

A pony is a small horse (Equus ferus caballus) with a specific conformation and temperament. There are many different breeds of ponies. Compared to horses, ponies often exhibit thicker manes, tails and overall coat, as well as proportionally shorter legs, wider barrels, heavier bone, thicker necks, and shorter heads with broader foreheads. On occasion, people who are unfamiliar with horses may confuse an adult pony with a foal, which is a young, immature horse. Ponies are generally considered intelligent and friendly, though sometimes they also are described as stubborn or devious. The differences of opinion often result from an individual pony's degree of proper training. Ponies trained by inexperienced individuals, or only ridden by beginners, can turn out to be spoiled because their riders typically lack the experience base to correct bad habits. Properly trained ponies are appropriate mounts for children who are learning to ride. Larger ponies can be ridden by adults, as ponies are usually strong for their size. The pony originated from original wild horse prototypes that developed small stature due to living on the margins of livable horse habitat. These smaller animals were domesticated and bred for various purposes all over the Northern hemisphere. Ponies were historically used for driving and freight transport, as children's mounts, for recreational riding, and later as competitors and performers in their own right. During the Industrial Revolution, particularly in Great Britain, a significant number were used as "pit ponies", hauling loads of coal up from the mines. Contents [hide] * 1 Horses and ponies * 2 History * 3 Uses * 4 Breeds and types * 5 Breeds that are not ponies * 6 See also * 7 References * 8 External links Horses and ponies A pony foal. Pony foals are smaller than horse foals, but both have long legs and small bodies For many forms of competition, the official definition of a pony is a horse that measures less than 14.2 hands (58 inches, 147 cm) at the withers. Horses are 14.2 or taller. The International Federation for Equestrian Sports defines the official cutoff point at 148 centimetres (58.27 in) (just over 14.2 h) without shoes and 149 centimetres (58.66 in) (just over 14.2-1/2 h) with shoes, though allows a margin for competition measurement of up to 150 centimetres (59.1 in) (14.3 h) without shoes, or 151 centimetres (59.45 in) (just under 14.3-1/2 h) with shoes.[1] However, the term "pony" can be used in general (or affectionately) for any small horse, regardless of its actual size or breed. Furthermore, some horse breeds may have individuals who mature under that height but are still called "horses" and are allowed to compete as horses. In Australia horses that measure from 14 hands to 15 hands are known as a "galloway", and ponies in Australia measure under 14 hands.[2] People who are unfamiliar with horses may confuse an adult pony with a young, immature horse. While foals that will grow up to be horse-sized may be no taller than some ponies in their first months of life, their body proportions are very different. A pony can be ridden and put to work, while a foal is too young to be ridden or used as a working animal. Foals, whether they grow up to be horse or pony-sized, can be distinguished from adult horses by their extremely long legs and slim bodies. Their heads and eyes also exhibit juvenile characteristics. Furthermore, in most cases, nursing foals will be in very close proximity to a mare who is the mother (dam) of the foal. While ponies exhibit some neoteny with the wide foreheads and small size, their body proportions are similar to that of an adult horse. History Ponies originally developed as a landrace adapted to a harsh natural environment, and were considered part of the "draft" subtype typical of Northern Europe.[3] Domesticated ponies of all breeds originally developed mainly from the need for a working animal that could fulfill specific local draft and transportation needs while surviving in harsh environments. However, by the 20th century, many pony breeds had Arabian and other blood added to make a more refined pony suitable for riding.[4] Uses An Australian pony shown under saddle. Ponies are seen in many different equestrian pursuits. Some breeds, such as the Hackney pony, are primarily used for driving, while other breeds, such as the Connemara pony and Australian Pony, are used primarily for riding. Others, such as the Welsh pony, are used for both riding and driving. A Shetland pony shown in harness. Ponies compete at events ranging from hunters, English riding on the flat, harness, and western riding classes at horse shows, to other competitive events such as gymkhana and combined driving. They are seen in casual pursuits such as trail riding. Ponies also are shown in dressage, equitation, and other events, even in international-level competition. Though many exhibitors confine themselves to classes just for ponies, top ponies are competitive against full-sized horses. For example, a 14.1 hand pony named Stroller was a member of the British Equestrian show jumping team, and won the silver medal at the 1968 Summer Olympics. More recently, the 14.1-3/4 hand pony Theodore O'Connor won the gold medal in eventing at the 2007 Pan American Games. There is no direct correlation between a horse's size and its inherent athletic ability.[5] Pony Clubs, open to young people who own either horses or ponies, are formed worldwide to educate young people about horses, promote responsible horse ownership, and also sponsor competitive events for young people and smaller horses. In many parts of the world ponies are also still used as working animals, as pack animals and for pulling various horse-drawn vehicles. They are sometimes seen at traveling carnivals, or at children's private parties where small children can take short rides on ponies that are saddled and then either led individually or hitched to a "pony wheel" (a non-motorized device akin to a hot walker) that leads six to eight ponies at a time. Ponies are sometimes seen at summer camps for children, and in some places, particularly Ireland and the UK, larger ponies may even carry adults on Equitourism vacations. Breeds and types Main article: list of horse breeds The Shetland pony is one of the smallest pony breeds, but also is very strong Pony breeds have developed all over the world, particularly in cold and harsh climates where hardy, sturdy, working animals were needed. The "Four foundations theory" suggests that ponies, particularly in Europe, may have descended from the "draft" subspecies of Equus ferus.[6] Nearly all pony breeds share the ability to thrive on a more limited diet than that of a regular-sized horse, and are remarkably strong for their size. Some breeds, such as the Shetland pony are able to pull as much weight as a draft horse. Others, such as the Connemara pony, are recognized for their ability to carry a full-sized adult rider. The Connemara pony is a larger pony which occasionally matures over 14.2 hands For showing purposes, ponies are often grouped into small, medium, and large sizes. Small ponies are 12.2 hands (50 inches (130 cm)) and under, medium ponies are over 12.2 but no taller than 13.2 hands (54 inches (140 cm)), and large ponies are over 13.2 hands but no taller than 14.2 hands. The smallest equines are called miniature horses by many of their breeders and breed organizations, rather than ponies, but stand smaller than small ponies, usually no taller than 38 inches (97 cm) at the withers. However, there are also miniature pony breeds. Breeds that are not ponies The full-sized horses used for polo are called "polo ponies," even though they are taller than ponies Some horse breeds are not considered ponies, even when they have some animals that measure under 14.2 hands. This is usually due to body build, traditional uses and overall physiology. Breeds that are considered horses regardless of height include the Arabian horse, American Quarter Horse and the Morgan horse, all of which have individual members both over and under 14.2 hands. The Icelandic horse is considered a horse, not a pony, by those who own and breed them Other horse breeds, such as Icelandic Horse and Fjord Horse, may sometimes be pony-sized or have some pony characteristics, such as a heavy coat, thick mane, and heavy bone, but are generally classified as "horses" by their respective registries. In cases such as these, there can be considerable debate over whether to call certain breeds "horses" or "ponies." However, individual breed registries usually are the arbiters of such debates, weighing the relative horse and pony characteristics of a breed. In some breeds, such as the Welsh pony, the horse-versus-pony controversy is resolved by creating separate divisions for consistently horse-sized animals, such as the "Section D" Welsh Cob Some horses may be pony height due to environment more than genetics. For example, the Chincoteague pony, a feral horse that lives on Assateague Island off the coast of Virginia, often matures to the height of an average small horse when raised from a foal under domesticated conditions.[7] There is debate over whether the feral Chincoteague ponies of Assateague Island are horses or ponies Conversely, the term "pony" is occasionally used to describe horses of normal height. Horses used for polo are often called "polo ponies", though in the United States and the United Kingdom, they are often of Thoroughbred breeding and often well over 14.2 hands. American Indian tribes also have the tradition of referring to their horses as "ponies," when speaking in English, even though many of the Mustang horses they used in the 19th century were close to or over 14.2 hh, and most horses owned and bred by Native peoples today are of full horse height. The term "pony" is also sometimes used to describe a full-sized horse in a humorous or affectionate sense. The United States Pony Club defines "pony" to be any mount that is ridden by a member regardless of its breed or size. Persons up to 25 years old are eligible for membership, and some of the members' "ponies" actually are full-size horses

train Return to the top

A train is a connected series of vehicles for rail transport that move along a track (permanent way) to transport cargo or passengers from one place to another. The track usually consists of two rails, but might also be a monorail or maglev guideway. Propulsion for the train is provided by a separate locomotive, or from individual motors in self-propelled multiple units. Most modern trains are powered by diesel locomotives or by electricity supplied by overhead wires or additional rails, although historically (from the early 19th century to the mid-20th century) the steam locomotive was the dominant form of locomotive power. Other sources of power (such as horses, rope or wire, gravity, pneumatics, and gas turbines) are possible. The word 'train' comes from the Old French trahiner, itself from the Latin trahere 'pull, draw'.[1] Contents [hide] * 1 Types o 1.1 Terminology * 2 Bogies * 3 Motive power * 4 Passenger trains o 4.1 Long-distance trains + 4.1.1 High-speed rail + 4.1.2 Maglev + 4.1.3 Inter-city trains + 4.1.4 Regional trains o 4.2 Short-distance trains + 4.2.1 Commuter trains + 4.2.2 Rapid transit + 4.2.3 Tram + 4.2.4 Light rail + 4.2.5 Monorail o 4.3 Named trains o 4.4 Other types * 5 Freight trains * 6 See also o 6.1 Rail accidents * 7 References * 8 Further reading * 9 External links [edit] Types Steam locomotive-hauled passenger train German ICE high speed passenger train (a form of multiple unit) Hungarian Máv-Start Intercity British Rail Class 153 (single-unit) diesel railcar Newag 14WE of Warsaw Urban Rapid Railway in Pruszków US-style railroad truck (bogie) with journal bearings V43, a common Hungarian electric locomotive used in passenger train service. Kashmir Railway, India is the second highest railway in the world. It has facilitated economic growth in the Kashmir Valley. Seen here is security personnel standing guard as a train passes near Budgam Interior of a passenger car in a long-distance train in Finland Japanese Shinkansen 500 Series (High-speed rail) Russian Velaro high speed passenger train (a form of multiple unit) Romanian Căile Ferate Române diesel railcar in Bucharest's Gara de Nord station Mumbai's suburban trains handle 6.3 million commuters daily.[2] A CityTrain SMU (Suburban Multiple Unit) operating on the suburban rail network in Brisbane, Queensland, Australia A Transperth B-series train Interior of a 6-door passenger car in Japan, when the bench seats are folded A Swiss train There are various types of train designed for particular purposes. A train can consist of a combination of one or more locomotives and attached railroad cars, or a self-propelled multiple unit (or occasionally a single powered coach, called a railcar). Trains can also be hauled by horses, pulled by a cable, or run downhill by gravity. Special kinds of trains running on corresponding special 'railways' are atmospheric railways, monorails, high-speed railways, maglev, rubber-tired underground, funicular and cog railways. A passenger train may consist of one or several locomotives, and one or more coaches. Alternatively, a train may consist entirely of passenger carrying coaches, some or all of which are powered as a "multiple unit". In many parts of the world, particularly Japan and Europe, high-speed rail is utilized extensively for passenger travel. Freight trains comprise wagons or trucks rather than carriages, though some parcel and mail trains (especially Travelling Post Offices) are outwardly more like passenger trains. Trains can also be 'mixed', comprising both passenger accommodation and freight vehicles. Such mixed trains are most likely to occur where services are infrequent, and running separate passenger and freight trains is not cost-effective, though the differing needs of passengers and freight usually means this is avoided where possible. Special trains are also used for track maintenance; in some places, this is called maintenance of way. In the United Kingdom, a train hauled by two locomotives is said to be "double-headed", and in Canada and the United States it is quite common for a long freight train to be headed by three or more locomotives. A train with a locomotive attached at each end is described as 'top and tailed', this practice typically being used when there are no reversing facilities available. Where a second locomotive is attached temporarily to assist a train up steep banks or grades (or down them by providing braking power) it is referred to as 'banking' in the UK, or 'helper service' in North America. Recently, many loaded trains in the US have been made up with one or more locomotives in the middle or at the rear of the train, operated remotely from the lead cab. This is referred to as "DP" or "Distributed Power." [edit] Terminology The railway terminology that is used to describe a 'train' varies between countries. United Kingdom In the United Kingdom, the interchangeable terms set and unit are used to refer to a group of permanently or semi-permanently coupled vehicles, such as those of a multiple unit. While when referring to a train made up of a variety of vehicles, or of several sets/units, the term formation is used. (Although the UK public and media often forgo 'formation', for simply 'train'.) The word rake is also used for a group of coaches or wagons. In the United Kingdom Section 83(1) of the Railways Act 1993 defines "train" as follows: a) two or more items of rolling stock coupled together, at least one of which is a locomotive; or b) a locomotive not coupled to any other rolling stock. United States In the United States, the term consist is used to describe the group of rail vehicles which make up a train. When referring to motive power, consist refers to the group of locomotives powering the train. Similarly, the term trainset refers to a group of rolling stock that is permanently or semi-permanently coupled together to form a unified set of equipment (the term is most often applied to passenger train configurations). The Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railway's 1948 operating rules define a train as: "An engine or more than one engine coupled, with or without cars, displaying markers."[3] [edit] Bogies Main article: Bogie A bogie (pronounced /ˈboʊɡi/, US dict: b�′·gē) is a wheeled wagon or trolley. In mechanics terms, a bogie is a chassis or framework carrying wheels, attached to a vehicle. It can be fixed in place, as on a cargo truck, mounted on a swivel, as on a railway carriage or locomotive, or sprung as in the suspension of a caterpillar tracked vehicle. [edit] Motive power Main article: Locomotive The first trains were rope-hauled, gravity powered or pulled by horses. From the early 19th century almost all were powered by steam locomotives. From the 1910s onwards the steam locomotives began to be replaced by less labour intensive and cleaner (but more complex and expensive) diesel locomotives and electric locomotives, while at about the same time self-propelled multiple unit vehicles of either power system became much more common in passenger service. In most countries dieselisation of locomotives in day-to-day use was completed by the 1970s. A few countries, most notably the People's Republic of China, where coal and labour are cheap, still use a few steam locomotives, but most have been phased out. Historic steam trains still run in many other countries, for the leisure and enthusiast market. Electric traction offers a lower cost per mile of train operation but at a higher initial cost, which can only be justified on high traffic lines. Since the cost per mile of construction is much higher, electric traction is less viable for long-distance lines with the exception of long-distance high speed lines. Electric trains receive their current via overhead lines or through a third rail electric system. A recent variation of the electric locomotive is the fuel cell locomotive.[4][5] Fuel cell locomotives combine the advantage of not needing an electrical system in place, with the advantage of emissionless operation. However, the initial cost of such fuel cell vehicles is still substantial at the moment. [edit] Passenger trains A passenger train is one which includes passenger-carrying vehicles. It may be a self-powered multiple unit or railcar, or else a combination of one or more locomotives and one or more unpowered trailers known as coaches, cars or carriages. Passenger trains travel between stations or depots, at which passengers may board and disembark. In most cases, passenger trains operate on a fixed schedule and have superior track occupancy rights over freight trains. Oversight of a passenger train is the responsibility of the conductor. He or she is usually assisted by other crew members, such as service attendants or porters. During the heyday of North American passenger rail travel, long distance trains carried two conductors: the aforementioned train conductor, and a Pullman conductor, the latter being in charge of sleeping car personnel. Many prestigious passenger train services have been given a specific name, some of which have become famous in literature and fiction. In past years, railroaders often referred to passenger trains as the "varnish", alluding to the bygone days of wooden-bodied coaches with their lustrous exterior finishes and fancy livery. "Blocking the varnish" meant a slow-moving freight train was obstructing a fast passenger train, causing delays. Some passenger trains, both long distance and short distanced, may use bi-level (double-decker) cars to carry more passengers per train. Car design and the general safety of passenger trains have dramatically evolved over time, making travel by rail remarkably safe. [edit] Long-distance trains Long-distance trains travel between many cities and/or regions of a country, and sometimes cross several countries. They often have a dining car or restaurant car to allow passengers to have a meal during the course of their journey. Trains travelling overnight may also have sleeping cars. [edit] High-speed rail Main article: High-speed rail One notable and growing long-distance train category is high-speed rail. Generally, high speed rail runs at speeds above 200 km/h (124 mph) and often operates on dedicated track that is surveyed and prepared to accommodate high speeds. Japan's Shinkansen ("bullet-train") commenced operation in 1964, and was the first successful example of a high speed passenger rail system. The fastest wheeled train running on rails is France's TGV (Train à Grande Vitesse, literally "high speed train"), which achieved a speed of 574.8 km/h (357.2 mph), twice the takeoff speed of a Boeing 727 jetliner, under test conditions in 2007. The highest speed currently attained in scheduled revenue operation is 350 km/h (217 mph) on the Beijing–Tianjin Intercity Rail and Wuhan–Guangzhou High-Speed Railway systems in China. The TGV runs at a maximum revenue speed of 300–320 km/h (186–199 mph), as does Germany's Inter-City Express. In most cases, high-speed rail travel is time- and cost-competitive with air travel when distances do not exceed 500 to 600 km (311 to 373 mi), as airport check-in and boarding procedures may add as many as two hours to the actual transit time.[6] Also, rail operating costs over these distances may be lower when the amount of fuel consumed by an airliner during takeoff and climbout is considered. As travel distance increases, the latter consideration becomes less of the total cost of operating an airliner and air travel becomes more cost-competitive. Some high speed rail equipment employs tilting technology to improve stability in curves. Examples of such equipment are the Advanced Passenger Train (APT), the Pendolino, the N700 Series Shinkansen, Amtrak's Acela Express and the Talgo. Tilting is a dynamic form of superelevation, allowing both low- and high-speed traffic to use the same trackage (though not simultaneously, of course), as well as producing a more comfortable ride for passengers. [edit] Maglev Main article: Maglev (transport) In order to achieve much faster operation over 500 km/h (310 mph), innovative Maglev technology has been researched for years. The Shanghai Maglev Train, opened in 2003, is the fastest commercial train service of any kind, operating at speeds of up to 430 km/h (270 mph). So far, however, Maglev has not been used for inter-city mass transit routes. [edit] Inter-city trains Main article: Inter-city rail Passenger trains can be divided into three major groups: * Intercity trains: connecting cities in the fastest time possible, by passing all intermediate stations * Fast trains: calling at larger intermediate stations between cities, serving large urban communities * Regional trains: calling at all intermediate stations between cities, serving all lineside communities The distinction between the types can be thin or even non-existent. Trains can run as Intercity services between major cities, then revert to a fast or even regional train service to serve communities at the extremity of their journey. This practice allows marginal communities remaining to be served while saving money at the expense of a longer journey time for those wishing to travel to the terminus station. [edit] Regional trains Main article: Regional rail Regional trains usually connect between towns and cities, rather than purely linking major population hubs like inter-city train, and serve local traffic demand in relatively rural area. [edit] Short-distance trains [edit] Commuter trains Main articles: Commuter rail and Commuter rail in North America For shorter distances many cities have networks of commuter trains, serving the city and its suburbs. Trains are a very efficient mode of transportation to cope with large traffic demand in a metropolis. Compared with road transport, it carries many people with much smaller land area and little air pollution. Some carriages may be laid out to have more standing room than seats, or to facilitate the carrying of prams, cycles or wheelchairs. Some countries have double-decked passenger trains for use in conurbations. Double deck high speed and sleeper trains are becoming more common in mainland Europe. Sometimes extreme congestion of commuter trains becomes a problem. For example, an estimated 3.5 million passengers ride every day on Yamanote Line in Tokyo, Japan, with its 29 stations. For comparison, the New York City Subway carries 4.8 million passengers per day on 24 services serving 468 stations. To cope with large traffic, special cars in which the bench seats fold up to provide standing room only during the morning rush hour (until 10 a.m.) are operated in Tokyo (E231 series train). This train has as many as six sets of doors on each side to shorten the time for passengers to get on and off at station. Passenger trains usually have emergency brake handles (or a "communication cord") that the public can operate. Misuse is punished by a heavy fine. [edit] Rapid transit Main articles: Commuter rail in North America, Commuter rail, Rapid transit, and Urban rail in the United Kingdom Large cities often have a metro system, also called underground, subway or tube. The trains are electrically powered, usually by third rail, and their railroads are separate from other traffic, usually without level crossings. Usually they run in tunnels in the city center and sometimes on elevated structures in the outer parts of the city. They can accelerate and decelerate faster than heavier, long-distance trains. The term rapid transit is used for public transport such as commuter trains, metro and light rail. However, in New York City, services on the New York City Subway have been referred to as "trains". [edit] Tram Main article: Tram In most countries, such as the United Kingdom, the distinction between a tramway and a railway is precise and defined in law. In the US and Canada such street railways are mostly referred to as trolleys. The key difference between a railroad and a trolley system is the latter running primarily on public streets, whereas trains have a right of way separated from the public. Often the US style interurban and modern light rail are confused with a trolley system, as it too may run on on the street for short or medium long sections. In some languages the word tram also refers to interurban and light rail -style networks, in particular Dutch. The length of a tram or trolley may be determined by national regulations. Germany has the so-called Bo-Strab standard, restricting the length of a tram to 75 meters, while in the US, vehicle length is normally restricted by local authorities, often allowing only a single type of vehicle to operate on the network. [edit] Light rail Main article: Light rail The term light rail is sometimes used for a modern tram system, but it may also mean an intermediate form between a tram and a train, similar to a subway except that it may have level crossings. These are then usually protected with crossing gates. In US terminology these systems are often referred to as interurban, as they connect larger urban areas in the vicinity of a major city to that city. Modern light rail systems often use abandoned heavy rail rights of way (e.g. former railway lines) to revitalize deprived areas and redevelopment sites in and around large agglomerations. [edit] Monorail Main article: Monorail Monorail was developed to meet medium-demand traffic in urban transit, but represents a relatively small part of the overall railway field. [edit] Named trains See also: Lists of named passenger trains Railway companies often give a name to a train service as a marketing exercise, to raise the profile of the service and hence attract more passengers (and also to gain kudos for the company). Usually, naming is reserved for the most prestigious trains: the high-speed express trains between major cities, stopping at few intermediate stations. The names of services such as the Orient Express, the Flying Scotsman, the Flèche d'Or and the Royal Scot have passed into popular culture. A somewhat less common practice is the naming of freight trains, for the same commercial reasons. The "Condor" was an overnight London-Glasgow express goods train, in the 1960s, hauled by pairs of "Metrovick" diesel locomotives. In the mid-1960s, British Rail introduced the "Freightliner" brand, for the new train services carrying containers between dedicated terminals around the rail network. The Rev. W. Awdry also named freight trains, coining the term The Flying Kipper for the overnight express fish train that appeared in his stories in The Railway Series books. [edit] Other types Heritage trains Main article: Heritage railway Heritage trains are operated by volunteers, often railfans, as a tourist attraction. Usually trains are formed from historic vehicles retired from national commercial operation. Airport trains Airport trains transport people between terminals within an airport complex. Mine trains Mine trains are operated in large mines and carry both workers and goods. Overland trains Overland trains are used to carry cargo over rough terrain. [edit] Freight trains Main article: Freight rail transport British electric container freight train American freight service A freight train (also known as goods train) uses freight cars (also known as wagons or trucks) to transport goods or materials (cargo) – essentially any train that is not used for carrying passengers. Much of the world's freight is transported by train, and in the United States the rail system is used more for transporting freight than passengers. Under the right circumstances, transporting freight by train is highly economic, and also more energy efficient than transporting freight by road. Rail freight is most economic when freight is being carried in bulk and over long distances, but is less suited to short distances and small loads. Bulk aggregate movements of a mere twenty miles (32 km) can be cost effective even allowing for trans-shipment costs. These trans-shipment costs dominate in many cases and many modern practices such as Intermodal container freight are aimed at minimizing these. The main disadvantage of rail freight is its lack of flexibility. For this reason, rail has lost much of the freight business to road competition. Many governments are now trying to encourage more freight onto trains, because of the benefits that it would bring. There are many different types of freight trains, which are used to carry many different kinds of freight, with many different types of wagons. One of the most common types on modern railways are container trains, where containers can be lifted on and off the train by cranes and loaded off or onto trucks or ships. In the U.S. this type of freight train has largely superseded the traditional boxcar (wagon-load) type of freight train, with which the cargo has to be loaded or unloaded manually. In Europe the sliding wall wagon has taken over from the ordinary covered goods wagon. In some countries "piggy-back" trains or rolling highways are used: In the latter case trucks can drive straight onto the train and drive off again when the end destination is reached. A system like this is used through the Channel Tunnel between England and France, and for the trans-Alpine service between France and Italy (this service uses Modalohr road trailer carriers). "Piggy-back" trains are the fastest growing type of freight trains in the United States, where they are also known as "trailer on flatcar" or TOFC trains. Piggy-back trains require no special modifications to the vehicles being carried. An alternative type of "inter-modal" vehicle, known as a Roadrailer, is designed to be physically attached to the train. The original trailers were fitted with two sets of wheels — one set flanged, for the trailer to run connected to other such trailers as a rail vehicle in a train; and one set tyred, for use as the semi-trailer of a road vehicle. More modern trailers have only road wheels and are designed to be carried on specially adapted bogies (trucks) when moving on rails. There are also many other types of wagons, such as "low loader" wagons for transporting road vehicles. There are refrigerator cars for transporting foods such as ice cream. There are simple types of open-topped wagons for transporting minerals and bulk material such as coal, and tankers for transporting liquids and gases. Today, however, most coal and aggregates are moved in hopper wagons that can be filled and discharged rapidly, to enable efficient handling of the materials. Freight trains are sometimes illegally boarded by passengers who do not wish to pay money, or do not have the money to travel by ordinary means. This is referred to as "freighthopping" and is considered by some communities to be a viable form of transport. A common way of boarding the train illegally is by sneaking into a train yard and stowing away in an unattended boxcar; a more dangerous practice is trying to catch a train "on the fly", that is, as it is moving, leading to occasional fatalities. Railroads treat it as trespassing and may prosecute it as such

hairstylist Return to the top

A hairstylist, or hairdresser, is someone who cuts and styles hair. He or she often offers other services such as coloring and hair extensions. Employment in this profession is incredibly varied, from high-powered salons which cater to the rich and famous to corner barbershops which offer basic haircuts at low prices. Depending on where a hairstylist works, he or she typically must get a cosmetology license from a certifying organization, to ensure that the hairstylist has fulfilled basic training requirements. Hairdressers work in a very old profession. People have been styling hair for thousands of years, and the personal retinues of many monarchs and prominent individuals included hairdressers as far back as Greek and Roman times. Just like their ancient counterparts, modern hairstylists keep up with hair fashions, popular trends, and new techniques for cutting and styling hair.

cake Return to the top

Cake is a form of food, typically a sweet, baked dessert. Cakes normally contain a combination of flour, sugar, eggs, and butter or oil, with some varieties also requiring liquid (typically milk or water) and leavening agents (such as yeast or baking powder). Flavorful ingredients like fruit purées, nuts or extracts are often added, and numerous substitutions for the primary ingredients are possible. Cakes are often filled with fruit preserves or dessert sauces (like pastry cream), iced with buttercream or other icings, and decorated with marzipan, piped borders or candied fruit. Cake is often the dessert of choice for meals at ceremonial occasions, particularly weddings, anniversaries, and birthdays. There are countless cake recipes; some are bread-like, some rich and elaborate and many are centuries old. Cake making is no longer a complicated procedure; while at one time considerable labor went into cake making (particularly the whisking of egg foams), baking equipment and directions have been simplified that even the most amateur cook may bake a cake. Contents [hide] * 1 Varieties * 2 Special-purpose cakes * 3 Shapes * 4 Cake flour * 5 Cake decorating * 6 History * 7 See also * 8 References Varieties German chocolate cake Cakes are broadly divided into several categories, based primarily on ingredients and cooking techniques. * Yeast cakes are the oldest, and are very similar to yeast breads. Such cakes are often very traditional in form, and include such pastries as babka and stollen. * Cheesecakes, despite their name, aren't really cakes at all. Cheesecakes are in fact custard pies, with a filling made mostly of some form of cheese (often cream cheese, mascarpone, ricotta or the like), and have very little to no flour added, although a flour-based crust may be used. Cheesecakes are also very old, with evidence of honey-sweetened cakes dating back to ancient Greece. * Sponge cakes are thought to be the first of the non-yeast-based cakes and rely primarily on trapped air in a protein matrix (generally of beaten eggs) to provide leavening, sometimes with a bit of baking powder or other chemical leaven added as insurance. Such cakes include the Italian/Jewish pan di Spagna and the French Génoise. Highly decorated sponge cakes with lavish toppings are sometimes called gateau, after the French word for cake. * Butter cakes, including the pound cake and devil's food cake, rely on the combination of butter, eggs, and sometimes baking powder to provide both lift and a moist texture. A large cake garnished with strawberries Beyond these classifications, cakes can be classified based on their appropriate accompaniment (such as coffee cake) and contents (e.g. fruitcake or flourless chocolate cake). Some varieties of cake are widely available in the form of cake mixes, wherein some of the ingredients (usually flour, sugar, flavoring, baking powder, and sometimes some form of fat) are premixed, and the cook needs add only a few extra ingredients, usually eggs, water, and sometimes vegetable oil or butter. While the diversity of represented styles is limited, cake mixes do provide an easy and readily available homemade option for cooks who are not accomplished bakers. Special-purpose cakes Cakes may be classified according to the occasion for which they are intended. For example, wedding cakes, birthday cakes, and Passover plava (a type of Jewish sponge cake sometimes made with matzo meal) are all identified primarily according to the celebration they are intended to accompany. The cutting of a wedding cake constitutes a social ceremony in some cultures. The Ancient Roman marriage ritual of confarreatio originated in the sharing of a cake. Particular types of cake may be associated with particular festivals, such as stollen (at Christmas), babka and simnel cake (at Easter), or mooncake. Shapes Cakes are frequently described according to their physical form. Cakes may be small and intended for individual consumption. Larger cakes may be made with the intention of being sliced and served as part of a meal or social function. Common shapes include: * Bundt cakes * Cake Balls * Cupcakes and madeleines, which are both sized for a single person * Layer cakes, frequently baked in a Springform pan and decorated * Sheet cakes, simple, flat, rectangular cakes baked in sheet pans * Swiss roll cakes Cake flour A decorated birthday cake Main article: Flour Special cake flour with a high starch-to-gluten ratio is made from fine-textured, soft, low-protein wheat. It is strongly bleached, and compared to all-purpose flour, cake flour tends to result in cakes with a lighter, less dense texture.[1] Therefore, it is frequently specified or preferred in cakes meant to be soft, light, and or bright white, such as angel food cake. However, cake flour is generally not considered mandatory for good results, and its effect on the cake's texture can readily be simulated by adding corn starch and/or baking soda to all-purpose flour.[2][3][4][5][6] Some recipes explicitly specify or permit all-purpose flour,[7][8] notably where a firmer or denser cake texture is desired. Cake decorating Main article: Cake decorating A chocolate cake decorated with icing, strawberries, and silvery sugar beads or Dragées. A slice of strawberry cake with garnishing of strawberry. Chocolate layer cake with chocolate frosting and shaved chocolate topping A finished cake is often enhanced by covering it with icing, or frosting, and toppings such as sprinkles, which are also known as "jimmies" in certain parts of the United States and "hundreds and thousands" in the United Kingdom. Frosting is usually made from powdered (icing) sugar, sometimes a fat of some sort, milk or cream, and often flavorings such as vanilla extract or cocoa powder. Some decorators use a rolled fondant icing. Commercial bakeries tend to use lard for the fat, and often whip the lard to introduce air bubbles. This makes the icing light and spreadable. Home bakers either use lard, butter, margarine or some combination thereof. Sprinkles are small firm pieces of sugar and oils that are colored with food coloring. In the late 20th century, new cake decorating products became available to the public. These include several specialized sprinkles and even methods to print pictures and transfer the image onto a cake. Special tools are needed for more complex cake decorating, such as piping bags or syringes, and various piping tips. To use a piping bag or syringe, a piping tip is attached to the bag or syringe using a coupler. The bag or syringe is partially filled with icing which is sometimes colored. Using different piping tips and various techniques, a cake decorator can make many different designs. Basic decorating tips include open star, closed star, basketweave, round, drop flower, leaf, multi, petal, and specialty tips. Royal icing, marzipan (or a less sweet version, known as almond paste), fondant icing (also known as sugarpaste) and buttercream are used as covering icings and to create decorations. Floral sugarcraft or wired sugar flowers are an important part of cake decoration. Cakes for special occasions, such as wedding cakes, are traditionally rich fruit cakes or occasionally Madeira cakes (also known as whisked or fatless sponge), that are covered with marzipan and either iced using royal icing or sugarpaste. They are finished with piped borders (made with royal icing) and adorned with a piped message, wired sugar flowers, hand-formed fondant flowers, marzipan fruit, piped flowers, or crystallized fruits or flowers such as grapes or violets.

disk jockey Return to the top

A disc jockey, also known as DJ (or deejay), is a person who selects and plays recorded music for an audience. Originally, disk referred to phonograph records, while disc referred to the Compact Disc, and has become the more common spelling. Today, the term includes all forms of music playback, no matter the medium. There are several types of disc jockeys. Radio DJs introduce and play music that is broadcast on AM, FM, shortwave, digital, or internet radio stations. Club DJs select and play music in bars, nightclubs, discothèques, at raves, or even in a stadium. Hip hop disc jockeys select and play music using multiple turntables, often to back up one or more MCs, and they may also do turntable scratching to create percussive sounds. In reggae, the disc jockey (deejay) is a vocalist who raps, "toasts", or chats over pre-recorded rhythm tracks while the individual choosing and playing them is referred to as a selector.[1] Mobile DJs travel with portable sound systems and play recorded music at a variety of events. Contents [hide] * 1 Equipment and techniques * 2 History o 2.1 19th century to 1920s o 2.2 1930s–1950s o 2.3 1960s and 1970s o 2.4 1980s o 2.5 1990s * 3 See also * 4 Notes * 5 References * 6 External links [edit] Equipment and techniques Turntables and mixer often used by DJs DJ equipment may consist of: * Sound recordings in a DJ's preferred medium (e.g., vinyl records, Compact Discs, computer media files, etc.); * A combination of two devices (or only one, if playback is digital) to play sound recordings, for alternating back and forth to create a continuous playback of music (e.g., record players, Compact Disc players, computer media players such as an MP3 player, etc.); * A multiple Sequencer which can mix MIDI tracks with Digital Audio; * A sound system for amplification or broadcasting of the recordings (e.g., portable audio system, PA system) or a radio broadcasting system; * A DJ mixer, which is an electronic (usually 2- or 4-channel) audio mixer usually equipped with a crossfader used to smoothly go from one song to another, using two or more playback devices; * Headphones, used to listen to one recording while the other recording is being played to the audience; and * Optionally, a microphone, so that the DJ can introduce songs and speak to the audience. Other equipment could or can be added to the basic DJ setup (above), providing unique sound manipulations. Such devices include, but are not limited to: * Electronic effects units (delay, reverb, octave, equalizer, chorus, etc.). Some club DJs use a sub-harmonic synthesizer effect which either doubles low frequencies with energy added an octave lower or synthesizes harmonics such that the impression of a very low bass sound is added to the mix. * A computerised performance system, which can be used with vinyl emulation software to manipulate digital files on the computer in real time. * Multi-stylus headshells, which allow a DJ to play different grooves of the same record at the same time. * Special DJ digital controller hardware can manipulate digital files on a PC or laptop; * Samplers, sequencers, electronic musical keyboards (synthesizers), or drum machines. Several techniques are used by DJs as a means to better mix and blend recorded music. These techniques primarily include the cueing, equalization, and audio mixing of two or more sound sources. The complexity and frequency of special techniques depends largely on the setting in which a DJ is working. Radio DJs are less likely to focus on music-mixing procedures than club DJs, who rely on a smooth transition between songs using a range of techniques. Club DJ turntable techniques include beatmatching, phrasing, and slip-cueing to preserve energy on a dancefloor. Turntablism embodies the art of cutting, beat juggling, scratching, needle drops, phase shifting, back spinning, and more to perform the transitions and overdubs of samples in a more creative manner (although turntablism is often considered a use of the turntable as a musical instrument rather than a tool for blending recorded music). Professional DJs may use harmonic mixing to choose songs that are in compatible musical keys. [edit] History [edit] 19th century to 1920s In 1857, Leon Scott invented the phonoautograph in France, the first device to record sound but with no method of playback. In 1877, Charles Cros invented a phonograph in France that was patented before Thomas Alva Edison's invention but never built. Edison invented the phonograph cylinder, the first device to play back recorded sound, in the United States. In 1892, Emile Berliner began commercial production of his gramophone records, the first disc records to be offered to the public. In 1906, Reginald Fessenden transmitted the first audio radio broadcast in history also playing the first record, that of a contralto singing Handel's Largo from Xerxes.[2] The world's first radio disc jockey was Ray Newby, of Stockton, California. In 1909, at 16 years of age, Newby began regularly playing records on a small spark transmitter while a student at Herrold College of Engineering and Wireless, located in San Jose, California, under the authority of radio pioneer Charles "Doc" Herrold. Though it was really called Disco Jockey, it has been changed through the years to Disc Jockey but it can be referred as DISCO or DISC Jockey.[3][4] We used popular records at that time, mainly Caruso records, because they were very good and loud; we needed a boost… we started on an experimental basis and then, because this is novel, we stayed on schedule continually without leaving the air at any time from that time on except for a very short time during World War I, when the government required us to remove the antenna… Most of our programming was records, I'll admit, but of course we gave out news as we could obtain it…[3] —Ray Newby, I've Got a Secret (1965) By 1910, regular radio broadcasting had started to use "live" as well as prerecorded sound. In the early radio age, content typically included comedy, drama, news, music, and sports reporting. The on-air announcers and programmers would later be known as disc jockeys. In the 1920s, juke joints became popular as places for dancing and drinking to recorded jukebox music. In 1927, Christopher Stone became the first radio announcer and programmer in the United Kingdom, on the BBC radio station. In 1929, Thomas Edison ceased phonograph cylinder manufacture, ending the disc and cylinder rivalry. [edit] 1930s–1950s In 1935, American commentator Walter Winchell coined the term "disc jockey" (the combination of disc, referring to the disc records, and jockey, which is an operator of a machine) as a description of radio announcer Martin Block, the first announcer to become a star. While his audience was awaiting developments in the Lindbergh kidnapping, Block played records and created the illusion that he was broadcasting from a ballroom, with the nation’s top dance bands performing live. The show, which he called Make Believe Ballroom, was an instant hit. The term "disc jockey" appeared in print in Variety in 1941.[5] Prior to this, most music heard on radio was live; most radio stations had an orchestra or band on the payroll.[6][7] The Federal Communications Commission also clearly favored live music, providing accelerated license approval to stations promising not to use any recordings for their first three years on the air.[5] Many noted recording artists tried to keep their recorded works off the air by having their records labeled as not being legal for airplay. It took a Federal court ruling in 1940 to establish that a recording artist had no legal right to control the use of a record after it was sold.[5] In 1943, Jimmy Savile launched the world's first DJ dance party by playing jazz records in the upstairs function room of the Loyal Order of Ancient Shepherds in Otley, England. In 1947, he claims to have become the first DJ to use twin turntables for continuous play. Also in 1947, the Whiskey à Go-Go nightclub opened in Paris, France, considered to be the world's first commercial discothèque, or disco (deriving its name from the French word meaning a nightclub where the featured entertainment is recorded music rather than an on-stage band). Regine began playing on twin turntables there in 1953. Discos began appearing across Europe and the United States. From the late 1940s to early 1950s, the introduction of television eroded the popularity of radio's early format, causing it to take on the general form it has today, with a strong focus on music, news, and sports. The postwar period coincided with the rise of the radio disc jockey as a celebrity separate from the radio station, also known as a "radio personality". In the days before station-controlled playlists, the DJ often followed their personal tastes in music selection. DJs also played a role in exposing rock and roll artists to large, national audiences. While at WERE in Cleveland, Ohio, DJ Bill Randle was one of the first to introduce Elvis Presley to radio audiences in the northeastern US. [8] In the 1950s, American radio DJs would appear live at "sock hops" and "platter parties" and assume the role of a human jukebox. They would usually play 45-rpm records, featuring hit singles on one turntable while talking between songs. In some cases, a live drummer was hired to play beats between songs to maintain the dance floor. In 1955, Bob Casey, a well-known "sock hop" DJ, brought the two-turntable system to the U.S. Throughout the 1950s, payola payments by record companies to DJs in return for airplay were an ongoing problem. Part of the fallout from the payola scandal was tighter control of the music by station management. The Top 40 format emerged, where popular songs are played repeatedly. In the late 1950s, sound systems, a new form of public entertainment, were developed in the ghettos of Kingston, Jamaica. Promoters, who called themselves DJs, would throw large parties in the streets that centered on the disc jockey, called the "selector," who played dance music from large, loud PA systems and bantered over the music with a boastful, rhythmic chanting style called "toasting". These parties quickly became profitable for the promoters, who would sell admission, food, and alcohol, leading to fierce competition between DJs for the biggest sound systems and newest records. [edit] 1960s and 1970s A DJ nicknamed "Captain PJ" performing at the Spectra club in 1977. In the mid-1960s, nightclubs and discothèques continued to grow in Europe and the United States. Specialized DJ equipment, such as Rudy Bozak's classic CMA-10-2DL mixer, began to appear on the market. In 1969, American club DJ Francis Grasso popularized beatmatching at New York's Sanctuary nightclub. Beatmatching is the technique of creating seamless transitions between records with matching beats, or tempos. Grasso also developed slip-cuing, the technique of holding a record still while the turntable is revolving underneath, releasing it at the desired moment to create a sudden transition from the previous record. By 1968, the number of dance clubs started to decline; most American clubs either closed or were transformed into clubs featuring live bands. Neighborhood block parties that were modelled after Jamaican sound systems gained popularity in Europe and in the boroughs of New York City. In 1973, Jamaican-born DJ Kool Herc, widely regarded as the "godfather of hip-hop culture," performed at block parties in his Bronx neighborhood and developed a technique of mixing back and forth between two identical records to extend the rhythmic instrumental segment, or break. Turntablism, the art of using turntables not only to play music but to manipulate sound and create original music, began to develop. In 1974, Technics released the first SL-1200 turntable, which evolved into the SL-1200 MK2 in 1979—which, as of the mid-2000s, remains the industry standard for deejaying. In 1974, German electronic music band Kraftwerk released the 22-minute song "Autobahn," which takes up the entire first side of that LP. Years later, Kraftwerk would become a significant influence on hip-hop artists such as Afrika Bambaataa and house music pioneer Frankie Knuckles. During the mid-1970s, Hip-hop music and culture began to emerge, originating among urban African Americans and Latinos in New York City. The four main elements of hip-hop culture were MCing (rapping), DJing, graffiti, and breakdancing. In the mid-1970s, the soul-funk blend of dance pop known as disco took off in the mainstream pop charts in the United States and Europe, causing discothèques to experience a rebirth. Unlike many late-1960s clubs, which featured live bands, discothèques used the DJ's selection and mixing of records as the entertainment. In 1975, record pools began, providing disc jockeys access to newer music from the industry in an efficient method. In 1975,[9] hip-hop DJ Grand Wizard Theodore invented the scratching technique by accident. In 1976, American DJ, editor, and producer Walter Gibbons remixed "Ten Percent" by Double Exposure, one of the earliest commercially released 12″ singles (aka "maxi-single"). In 1979, the Sugar Hill Gang released "Rapper's Delight", the first hip-hop record to become a hit. It was also the first real breakthrough for sampling, as the bassline of Chic's "Good Times" laid the foundation for the song. In 1977, Saratoga Springs, NY disc jockey Tom L. Lewis introduced the Disco Bible (later renamed Disco Beats), which published hit disco songs listed by beats per minute (tempo), as well as by either artist or song title. Billboard ran an article on the new publication, and it went national relatively quickly. The list made it easier for beginning DJs to learn how to create seamless transitions between songs without dancers having to change their rhythm on the dance floor. Today, DJs can find the beats per minute of songs in the BPM List. [edit] 1980s In 1981, the cable television network MTV was launched, originally devoted to music videos, especially popular rock music. The term "video jockey", or VJ, was used to describe the fresh-faced youth who introduced the music videos. In 1982, the demise of disco in the mainstream by the summer of 1982 forced many nightclubs to either close or change entertainment styles, such as by providing MTV-style video dancing or live bands. Released in 1982, the song "Planet Rock" by DJ Afrika Bambaataa was the first hip-hop song to feature synthesizers. The song melded electronic hip-hop beats with the melody from Kraftwerk's "Trans-Europe Express." In 1982, the Compact Disc reached the public market in Asia, and early the following year in other markets. This event is often seen as the "Big Bang" of the digital audio revolution. In the early 1980s, NYC disco DJ Larry Levan, known for his eclectic mixes, gained a cult following, and the Paradise Garage, the nightclub at which he spun, became the prototype for the modern dance club where the music and the DJ were showcased. Around the same time, the disco-influenced electronic style of dance music called house music emerged in Chicago. The name was derived from the Warehouse Club in Chicago, where resident DJ Frankie Knuckles mixed old disco classics and Eurosynth pop. House music is essentially disco music with electronic drum machine beats. The common element of most house music is a 4/4 beat generated by a drum machine or other electronic means (such as a sampler), together with a solid (usually also electronically generated) synth bassline. In 1983, Jesse Saunders released what some consider the first house music track, "On & On." The mid-1980s also saw the emergence of New York Garage, a house music hybrid that was inspired by Levan's style and sometimes eschewed the accentuated high-hats of the Chicago house sound. During the mid-1980s, techno music emerged from the Detroit club scene. Being geographically located between Chicago and New York, Detroit techno artists combined elements of Chicago house and New York garage along with European imports. Techno distanced itself from disco's roots by becoming almost purely electronic with synthesized beats. In 1985, the Winter Music Conference started in Fort Lauderdale Florida and became the premier electronic music conference for dance music disc jockeys. In 1985, TRAX Dance Music Guide was launched by American Record Pool in Beverly Hills. It was the first national DJ-published music magazine, created on the Macintosh computer using extensive music market research and early desktop publishing tools. In 1986, "Walk This Way", a rap/rock collaboration by Run DMC and Aerosmith, became the first hip-hop song to reach the Top 10 on the Billboard Hot 100. This song was the first exposure of hip-hop music, as well as the concept of the disc jockey as band member and artist, to many mainstream audiences. In 1988, DJ Times magazine was first published. It was the first US-based magazine specifically geared toward the professional mobile and club DJ. Starting in the mid-1980s, the wedding and banquet business changed dramatically with the introduction of DJ music, replacing the bands that had been the norm. Bandleaders, like Jerry Perell and others, started DJ companies, such as NY Rhythm DJ Entertainers. Using their knowledge of audience participation, MC charisma, and "crowd-pleasing" repertory selection, the wedding music industry became almost all DJ while combining the class and elegance of the traditional band presentation. New DJs as well as bandleaders with years of experience and professionalism transformed the entire industry. [edit] 1990s Jason Jollins performing at Pacha, Buenos Aires. During the early 1990s, the rave scene built on the acid house scene. The rave scene changed dance music, the image of DJs, and the nature of promoting. The innovative marketing surrounding the rave scene created the first superstar DJs who established marketable "brands" around their names and sound. Some of these celebrity DJs toured around the world and were able to branch out into other music-related activities. During the early 1990s, the Compact Disc surpassed the gramophone record in popularity, but gramophone records continued to be made (although in very limited quantities) into the 21st century—particularly for club DJs and for local acts recording on small regional labels. During the mid-1990s, trance music, having run rampant in the German underground for several years, emerged as a major force in dance music throughout Europe and the UK. It became one of the world's most dominant forms of dance music by the end of the 1990s, thanks to a trend away from its repetitive, hypnotic roots, and towards commercialized song structure. In 1991, Mobile Beat magazine, geared specifically toward mobile DJs, began publishing. In 1992, MPEG which stands for the Moving Picture Experts Group, released The MPEG-1 standard, designed to produce reasonable sound at low bit rates. The lossy compression scheme MPEG-1 Layer-3, popularly known as MP3, later revolutionized the digital music domain. In 1993, the first internet "radio station", Internet Talk Radio, was developed by Carl Malamud. Because the audio was relayed over the internet, it was possible to access internet radio stations from anywhere in the world. This made it a popular service for both amateur and professional disc jockeys operating from a personal computer. In 1995, the first full-time, internet-only radio station, Radio HK, began broadcasting the music of independent bands. In 1996, Mobile Beat had its first national mobile DJ convention in Las Vegas. During the late 1990s, nu metal bands, such as Korn, Limp Bizkit, and Linkin Park, reached the height of their popularity. This new subgenre of alternative rock bore some influence from hip-hop because rhythmic innovation and syncopation are primary, often featuring DJs as band members. As well, during the late 1990s, various DJ and VJ software programs were developed, allowing personal computer users to deejay or veejay using his or her personal music or video files. In 1998, the first MP3 digital audio player was released, the Eiger Labs MPMan F10. Final Scratch debuted at the BE Developer Conference, marking the first digital DJ system to allow DJs control of MP3 files through special time-coded vinyl records or CDs. While it would take sometime for this novel concept to catch on with the "die hard Vinyl DJs", This would soon become the first step in the new Digital DJ revolution. Manufacturers joined with computer DJing pioneers to offer professional endorsements, the first being Professor Jam (aka William P. Rader), who went on to develop the industry's first dedicated computer DJ convention and learning program, the "CPS (Computerized Performance System) DJ Summit", to help spread the word about the advantages of this emerging technology. In 1999, Shawn Fanning released Napster, the first of the massively popular peer-to-peer file sharing systems. During this period, the AVLA (Audio Video Licensing Agency) of Canada announced an MP3 DJing license, administered by the Canadian Recording Industry Association. This meant that DJs could apply for a license giving them the right to perform publicly using music stored on a hard drive, instead of having to cart their whole CD collections around to their gigs.

photographer Return to the top

A photographer, from the Greek φωτός, "light" and γ�άφω, "I write", is a person who takes photographs using a camera. A professional photographer uses photography to earn money whilst amateur photographers take photographs for pleasure and to record an event, emotion, place, or person. A professional photographer may be an employee, for example of a newspaper, or may contract to cover a particular event such as a wedding or graduation, or to illustrate an advertisement. Others, including paparazzi and fine art photographers, are freelancers, first making a picture and then offering it for sale or display. Some workers, such as policemen, estate agents, journalists and scientists, make photographs as part of other work. Photographers who produce moving rather than still pictures are often called cinematographers, videographers or camera operators, depending on the commercial context. Photographers are also categorized based on the subjects they photograph. Some photographers explore subjects typical of paintings such as landscape, still life, and portraiture. Other photographers specialize in subjects unique to photography, including street photography, documentary photography, fashion photography, wedding photography, war photography, photojournalism, and commercial photography. [edit] Selling photographs Further information: Photography and the law The exclusive right of photographers to copy and use their products is protected by copyright. Countless industries purchase photographs for use in publications and on products. The photographs seen on magazine covers, in television advertising, on greeting cards or calendars, on websites, or on products and packages, have generally been purchased for this use, either directly from the photographer or through an agency that represents the photographer. A photographer uses a contract to sell the "license" or use of his or her photograph with exact controls regarding how often the photograph will be used, in what territory it will be used (for example U.S. or U.K. or other), and exactly for which products. This is usually referred to as usage fee and is used to distinguish from production fees (payment for the actual creation of a photograph or photographs). An additional contract and royalty would apply for each additional use of the photograph. For example, the photographer may sell the use of one photograph to different companies for use on calendars, cereal boxes, magazines, greeting cards, or many other products, in many countries. The time duration of the contract may be for one year or other duration. The photographer usually charges a royalty as well as a one-time fee, which may or may not then be deducted from the royalties, depending on the terms of the contract. The contract may be for non-exclusive use of the photograph (meaning the photographer can sell the same photograph for more than one use during the same year) or for exclusive use of the photograph (i.e. only that company may use the photograph during the term). For example, a contract may stipulate non-exclusive use of the photograph on print greeting cards for one year within the United States with a certain up front fee and royalty per unit printed. The contract can also stipulate that the photographer is entitled to audit the company for determination of royalty payments. Royalties vary depending on the industry buying the photograph and the use, for example, royalties for a photograph used on a poster or in television advertising may be higher than the royalty for use on a limited run of brochures. A royalty is also often based on the size the photo will be used in a magazine or book, for example, if it is used as a quarter or half-page photo or full page. Cover photos usually command higher fees than photos used elsewhere in a book or magazine. In rare instances, corporations have funded teams of photographers by contract to cover a subject for purposes of publicity; for example, in 1947, Standard Oil Company of New Jersey hired a team of professional photographers including Gordon Parks and John Vachon and Todd Webb to make a documentary about how "there is a drop of oil in the life of everyone."[1] According to the New York Times, the team was "given amazingly free rein by its corporate sponsor" to produce the oil documentary,[1] but such contracts are rare. Photos taken by a photographer while working on assignment for a magazine or other publication or company often belong to the company or publication, rather than to the photographer, unless stipulated otherwise by contract. Professional portrait and wedding photographers often stipulate by contract that they retain the copyright on wedding photos or portrait photos, so that only they can sell further prints of the photographs to the consumer, rather than the customer reproducing the photos by other means. If the customer wishes to be able to reproduce the photos themselves, they may discuss an alternative contract with the photographer in advance before the pictures are taken, in which a larger up front fee may be paid in exchange for reprint rights passing to the customer. Even amateur photographers need not give their photos away for free if they are of marketable value. Information about licensing and marketing your photographs, and photo licensing contracts, is available online and in libraries. One can gain an understanding of the business of licensing and protecting photographs by consulting a variety of books and online resources on photograph licensing, and/or by contacting a lawyer who specialises in licensing/royalties, particularly of artwork and photography. There are major companies who have maintained catalogues of stock photography and images for decades, such as Getty Images and others. Since the turn of the 21st century many online stock photography catalogues have appeared which invite photographers to sell their photos online easily and quickly, but often for very little money, without a royalty, and without control over the use of the photo, the market it will be used in, the products it will be used on, time duration, etc. These online catalogues or the industries using the photograph may then profit from the photo with the photographer making little to no money for his photograph. Because of the difficulty in controlling the use of the photograph after it is passed on the internet, the photographer may never be able to license the photograph again for future use or regain ownership of his photograph. [edit] Photo sharing Main article: Photo sharing Many people upload their photographs to social networking websites and other websites, in order to share them with a particular group or with the general public. Those interested in legal precision may explicitly release them to the public domain or under a free content license. Some sites, including Wikimedia Commons, are punctilious about licenses and only accept pictures with clear information about permitted use. Some photographers may be concerned that a website can share, distribute, or sell these photographs, and/or that other users may download them for further publication or use. Thus, personal photographs on a social website page may wind up in stockpiles or catalogues containing thousands of images where they are purchased and used without your knowledge. The profit from the photographs then goes to someone else, and no credit to the photographer. This may be especially disturbing in the case of photos that have family and sentimental value, or other photos which the photographer intended to share but not to give away or sell. Likewise with photos sent in to contests in magazines or websites. Amateur photographers may submit them, giving their name and story about the pictures and be happy for the photo to be printed free of charge in a particular magazine. But the hundreds or thousands of photos that come into the company's ownership in this way will eventually usually be passed on for other uses either in print or on the internet, with the photographer receiving no payment, notice or credit. Only a contract can protect the photographer's rights. Photographers with such concerns must also research individual companies and publishers before selling their photographs, even with a contract, to ensure that the company has a good record and is in good business standing

globos Return to the top

La torsión de globos describe la manipulación de globos de modelado para transformarlos en prácticamente cualquier forma, por ejemplo un animal. Se trata de una práctica frecuente en el mundo circense. Dos de los principales estilos de diseño son el modelado sencillo, que se restringe al uso de un globo por modelo, y el modelado múltiple, que utiliza más de un globo. Cada estilo tiene su propio conjunto de dificultades y niveles, pero pocos modeladores que hayan alcanzado un nivel intermedio o avanzado se limitan a un único estilo, dependiendo de las necesidades del momento pueden fácilmente cambiar entre las dos aproximaciones. Las técnicas de modelado han evolucionado para incluir un surtido de movimientos muy complejos, también ha surgido un vocabulario altamente especializado para describir las técnicas utilizadas y las creaciones resultantes. Circo Magico, Globos del Circo

musica Return to the top

La música (del griego: μουσική [τέχνη] - mousikē [téchnē], "el arte de las musas") es, según la definición tradicional del término, el arte de organizar sensible y lógicamente una combinación coherente de sonidos y silencios utilizando los principios fundamentales de la melodía, la armonía y el ritmo, mediante la intervención de complejos procesos psico-anímicos. El concepto de música ha ido evolucionando desde su origen en la antigua Grecia, en que se reunía sin distinción a la poesía, la música y la danza como arte unitario. Desde hace varias décadas se ha vuelto más compleja la definición de qué es y qué no es la música, ya que destacados compositores, en el marco de diversas experiencias artísticas fronterizas, han realizado obras que, si bien podrían considerarse musicales, expanden los límites de la definición de este arte. La música, como toda manifestación artística, es un producto cultural. El fin de este arte es suscitar una experiencia estética en el oyente, y expresar sentimientos, circunstancias, pensamientos o ideas. La música es un estímulo que afecta el campo perceptivo del individuo; así, el flujo sonoro puede cumplir con variadas funciones (entretenimiento, comunicación, ambientación, etc.). Contenido [ocultar] * 1 Definición de la música * 2 Parámetros del sonido * 3 Elementos de la música * 4 Cultura y música * 5 La notación musical occidental * 6 Véase también * 7 Referencias * 8 Bibliografía * 9 Enlaces externos Definición de la música La música académica occidental ha desarrollado un método de escritura basado en dos ejes: el horizontal representa el transcurso del tiempo, y el vertical la altura del sonido; la duración de cada sonido está dada por la forma de las figuras musicales. Las definiciones parten desde el seno de las culturas, y así, el sentido de las expresiones musicales se ve afectado por cuestiones psicológicas, sociales, culturales e históricas. De esta forma, surgen múltiples y diversas definiciones que pueden ser válidas en el momento de expresar qué se entiende por música. Ninguna, sin embargo, puede ser considerada como perfecta o absoluta. Una definición bastante amplia determina que música es sonoridad organizada (según una formulación perceptible, coherente y significativa). Esta definición parte de que —en aquello a lo que consensualmente se puede denominar "música"— se pueden percibir ciertos patrones del "flujo sonoro" en función de cómo las propiedades del sonido son aprendidas y procesadas por los humanos (hay incluso quienes consideran que también por los animales). Hoy en día es frecuente trabajar con un concepto de música basado en tres atributos esenciales: que utiliza sonidos, que es un producto humano (y en este sentido, artificial) y que predomina la función estética. Si tomáramos en cuenta solo los dos primeros elementos de la definición, nada diferenciaría a la música del lenguaje. En cuanto a la función "estética", se trata de un punto bastante discutible; así, por ejemplo, un "jingle" publicitario no deja de ser música por cumplir una función no estética (tratar de vender una mercancía). Por otra parte, hablar de una función "estética" presupone una idea de la música (y del arte en general) que funciona en forma autónoma, ajena al funcionamiento de la sociedad, tal como la vemos en la teoría del arte del filósofo Immanuel Kant. Jean-Jacques Rousseau, autor de las voces musicales en L'Encyclopédie de Diderot, después recogidas en su Dictionnaire de la Musique,[1] la definió como "Arte de combinar los sonidos de una manera agradable al oído".[2] Según el compositor Claude Debussy, la música es "un total de fuerzas dispersas expresadas en un proceso sonoro que incluye: el instrumento, el instrumentista, el creador y su obra, un medio propagador y un sistema receptor". La definición más habitual en los manuales de música se parece bastante a esta: "la música es el arte del bien combinar los sonidos en el tiempo". Esta definición no se detiene a explicar lo que es el arte, y presupone que hay combinaciones "bien hechas" y otras que no lo son, lo que es por lo menos discutible. Algunos eruditos han definido y estudiado a la música como un conjunto de tonos ordenados de manera horizontal (melodía) y vertical (armonía). Este orden o estructura que debe tener un grupo de sonidos para ser llamados música está, por ejemplo, presente en las aseveraciones del filósofo Alemán Goethe cuando la comparaba con la arquitectura, definiendo metafóricamente a la arquitectura como "música congelada". La mayoría de los estudiosos coincide en el aspecto de la estructura, es decir, en el hecho de que la música implica una organización; pero algunos teóricos modernos difieren en que el resultado deba ser placentero o agradable. Parámetros del sonido Distribución de las notas musicales en el teclado de un piano. Cada nota representa una frecuencia de sonido distinta. Artículo principal: Solfeo La música está compuesta por dos elementos básicos: los sonidos y los «silencios». El sonido es la sensación percibida por el oído al recibir las variaciones de presión generadas por el movimiento vibratorio de los cuerpos sonoros. Se transmite por el medio que los envuelve, que generalmente es el aire de la atmósfera. La ausencia perceptible de sonido es el silencio, aunque es una sensación relativa, ya que el silencio absoluto no se da en la naturaleza. El sonido tiene cuatro parámetros fundamentales: * La altura es el resultado de la frecuencia que produce un cuerpo sonoro; es decir, de la cantidad de ciclos de las vibraciones por segundo o de hercios (Hz) que se emiten. De acuerdo con esto se pueden definir los sonidos como "graves" y "agudos". Cuanto mayor sea la frecuencia, más agudo (o alto) será el sonido. La longitud de onda es la distancia medida en la dirección de propagación de la onda, entre dos puntos cuyo estado de movimiento es idéntico; es decir, que alcanzan sus máximos y mínimos en el mismo instante. * La duración corresponde al tiempo que duran las vibraciones que producen un sonido. La duración del sonido está relacionada con el ritmo. La duración viene representada en la onda por los segundos que ésta contenga. * La intensidad es la fuerza con la que se produce un sonido; depende de la energía. La intensidad viene representada en una onda por la amplitud. * El timbre es la cualidad que permite distinguir los diferentes instrumentos o voces a pesar de que estén produciendo sonidos con la misma altura, duración e intensidad. Los sonidos que escuchamos son complejos; es decir, son el resultado de un conjunto de sonidos simultáneos (tonos, sobretonos y armónicos), pero que nosotros percibimos como uno (sonido fundamental). El timbre depende de la cantidad de armónicos o la forma de la onda que tenga un sonido y de la intensidad de cada uno de ellos, a lo cual se lo denomina espectro. El timbre se representa en una onda por el dibujo. Un sonido puro, como la frecuencia fundamental o cada sobretono, se representa con una onda sinusoidal, mientras que un sonido complejo es la suma de ondas senoidales puras. El espectro es una sucesión de barras verticales repartidas a lo largo de un eje de frecuencia y que representan a cada una de las senoides correspondientes a cada sobretono, y su altura indica la cantidad que aporta cada una al sonido resultante. Véase también: nota musical Elementos de la música La organización coherente de los sonidos y los silencios (según una forma de percepción) nos da los parámetros fundamentales de la música, que son la melodía, la armonía y el ritmo. La manera en la que se definen y aplican estos principios, varían de una cultura a otra (también hay variaciones temporales). * La melodía es un conjunto de sonidos —concebidos dentro de un ámbito sonoro particular— que suenan sucesivamente uno después de otro (concepción horizontal), y que se percibe con identidad y sentido propio. También los silencios forman parte de la estructura de la melodía, poniendo pausas al "discurso melódico". El resultado es como una frase bien construida semántica y gramaticalmente. Es discutible —en este sentido— si una secuencia dodecafónica podría ser considerada una melodía o no. Cuando hay dos o más melodías simultáneas se denomina contrapunto. * La armonía, bajo una concepción vertical de la sonoridad, y cuya unidad básica es el acorde, regula la concordancia entre sonidos que suenan simultáneamente y su enlace con sonidos vecinos. * La métrica, se refiere a la pauta de repetición a intervalos regulares, y en ciertas ocasiones irregulares, de sonidos fuertes o débiles y silencios en una composición. * El ritmo, es el resultado final de los elementos anteriores, a veces con variaciones muy notorias, pero en una muy general apreciación se trata de la capacidad de generar contraste en la música, esto es provocado por las diferentes dinámicas, timbres, texturas y sonidos. Otros parámetros de la música son: la forma musical, la textura musical y la instrumentación. Cultura y música Violinista en la catedral de Dublín. Buena parte de las culturas humanas tienen manifestaciones musicales. Algunas especies animales también son capaces de producir sonidos en forma organizada; lo que define a la música de los hombres, pues, no es tanto el ser una combinación "correcta" (o "armoniosa" o "bella") de sonidos en el tiempo como el ser una práctica de los seres humanos dentro de un grupo social determinado. Independientemente de lo que las diversas prácticas musicales de diversos pueblos y culturas tengan en común, es importante no perder de vista la diversidad en cuanto a los instrumentos utilizados para producir música, en cuanto a las formas de emitir la voz, en cuanto a las formas de tratar el ritmo y la melodía, y -sobre todo- en cuanto a la función que desempeña la música en las diferentes sociedades: no es lo mismo la música que se escucha en una celebración religiosa, que la música que se escucha en un anuncio publicitario, ni la que se baila en una discoteca. Tomando en consideración las funciones que una música determinada desempeña en un contexto social determinado podemos ser más precisos a la hora de definir las características comunes de la música, y más respetuosos a la hora de acercarnos a las músicas que no son las de nuestra sociedad. La Música - alegoriado representación de música (Varsovia, diseñado por Józef Gosławski) La mayoría de las definiciones de música sólo toman en cuenta algunas músicas producidas durante determinado lapso en Occidente, creyendo que sus características son "universales", es decir, comunes a todos los seres humanos de todas las culturas y de todos los tiempos. Muchos piensan que la música es un lenguaje "universal", puesto que varios de sus elementos, como la melodía, el ritmo, y especialmente la armonía (relación entre las frecuencias de las diversas notas de un acorde) son plausibles de explicaciones más o menos matemáticas, y que los humanos en mayor o menor medida, estamos naturalmente capacitados para percibir como bello. Quienes creen esto ignoran o soslayan la complejidad de los fenómenos culturales humanos. Así, por ejemplo, se ha creído que la armonía es un hecho musical universal cuando en realidad es exclusivo de la música de Occidente de los últimos siglos; o, peor aún, se ha creído que la armonía es privativa de la cultura occidental porque representa un estadio más "avanzado" o "superior" de la "evolución" de la música. Otro de los fenómenos más singulares de las sociedades occidentales (u occidentalizadas) es la compleja división del trabajo de la que es objeto la práctica musical. Así, por ejemplo, muchas veces es uno quien compone la música, otro quien la ejecuta, y otro tercero quien cobra las regalías. La idea de que quien crea la música es otra persona distinta de quien la ejecuta, así como la idea de que quien escucha la música no está presente en el mismo espacio físico en donde se produce es solamente posible en la sociedad occidental de hace algunos siglos; lo más común (es decir, lo más "universal") es que creador e intérprete sean la misma persona. La notación musical occidental Desde la antigua Grecia (en lo que respecta a música occidental) existen formas de notación musical. Sin embargo, es a partir de la música de la edad media (principalmente canto gregoriano) que se comienza a emplear el sistema de notación musical que evolucionaría al actual. En el Renacimiento cristalizó con los rasgos más o menos definitivos con que lo conocemos hoy, aunque -como todo lenguaje- ha ido variando según las necesidades expresivas de los usuarios. El sistema se basa en dos ejes: uno horizontal, que representa gráficamente el transcurrir del tiempo, y otro vertical que representa gráficamente la altura del sonido. Las alturas se leen en relación a un pentagrama (un conjunto de cinco líneas horizontales) que al comienzo tiene una "clave" que tiene la función de atribuir a una de las líneas del pentagrama una determinada nota musical. En un pentagrama encabezado por la clave de Sol en segunda línea nosotros leeremos como sol el sonido que se escribe en la segunda línea (contando desde abajo), como la el sonido que se escribe en el espacio entre la segunda y la tercera líneas, como si el sonido en la tercera línea, etc. Para los sonidos que quedan fuera de la clave se escriben líneas adicionales. Las claves más usadas son las de Do en tercera línea (clave que toma como referencia al Do de 261,63 Hz, el Do central del piano), la de Sol en segunda (que se refiere al Sol que está una quinta por encima del Do central), y la de Fa en cuarta (referida al Fa que está una quinta por debajo del Do central). El discurso musical está dividido en unidades iguales de tiempo llamadas compases: cada línea vertical que atraviesa el pentagrama marca el final de un compás y el comienzo del siguiente. Al comienzo del pentagrama habrá una fracción con dos números; el número de arriba indica la cantidad de tiempos que tiene cada compás; el número de abajo nos indica cuál será la unidad de tiempo. Para escribir las duraciones se utiliza un sistema de figuras: la redonda (representada como un círculo blanco), la blanca (un círculo blanco con un palito vertical llamado plica), la negra (igual que la blanca pero con un círculo negro), la corchea (igual que la negra pero con un palito horizontal que comienza en la punta de la plica), la semicorchea (igual que la corchea pero con dos palitos horizontales), etc.. Cada una vale la mitad de su antecesora: la blanca vale la mitad que una redonda y el doble que una negra, etc.. Las figuras son duraciones relativas; para saber qué figura es la unidad de tiempo en determinada partitura, debemos fijarnos en el número inferior de la indicación del compás: si es 1, cada redonda corresponderá a un tiempo; si es 2, cada blanca corresponderá a un tiempo; si es 4, cada tiempo será representado por una negra, etc.. Así, una partitura encabezada por un 3/4 estará dividida en compases en los que entren tres negras (o seis corcheas, o una negra y cuatro corcheas, etc.); un compás de 4/8 tendrá cuatro tiempos, cada uno de ellos representados por una corchea, etc.. Para representar los silencios, el sistema posee otros signos que representan un silencio de redonda, de blanca, etc.. Como se ve, las duraciones están establecidas según una relación binaria (doble o mitad), lo que no prevé la subdivisión por tres, que será indicada con "tresillos". Cuando se desea que a una nota o silencio se le agregue la mitad de su duración, se le coloca un punto a la derecha (puntillo). Cuando se desea que la nota dure, además de su valor, otro determinado valor, se escriben dos notas y se las une por medio de una línea arqueada llamada ligadura de prolongación. En general, las incapacidades del sistema son subsanadas apelando a palabras escritas más o menos convencionales, generalmente en italiano. Así, por ejemplo, las intensidades se indican mediante el uso de una f (forte, fuerte) o una p (piano, suave), o varias efes y pes juntas. La velocidad de los pulsos se indica con palabras al comienzo de la partitura que son, en orden de velocidad: largo, lento, adagio, moderato, andante, allegro, presto. Véase también * Ver el portal sobre Música Portal:Música. Contenido relacionado con Música. * Historia de la música Referencias 1. ↑ Dictionnaire de la Musique (Paris: Duchesne, 1768) 2. ↑ Jean-Jacques Rousseau: Diccionario de Música (Madrid: Akal, 2007), 281-288 Bibliografía * Eugenio Trías (2007). El canto de las sirenas: argumentos musicales. Galaxia Gutenberg. ISBN 978-84-8109-701-6. * Ulrich Michels (1985). Atlas de música. Alianza Editorial. ISBN 84-206-6999-7. * Peter Kivy (2001). Nuevos ensayos sobre la comprensión musical. Paidós. ISBN 978-84-493-1742-2. * Aaron Copland. Como escuchar música. Fondo de Cultura Económica. ISBN 13: 9789681641511. Enlaces externos * Colabora en Commons. Wikimedia Commons alberga contenido multimedia sobre Música. Commons * Colabora en Wikiquote Wikiquote alberga frases célebres de o sobre Música. Wikiquote * Colabora en Wikinoticias Wikinoticias tiene noticias relacionadas con Música.Wikinoticias Wikilibros * Colabora en Wikilibros Wikilibros alberga un libro o manual sobre Música. * Colabora en Wikisource. Wikisource contiene obras originales de o sobre Música.Wikisource * Colabora en Wikcionario Wikcionario tiene definiciones para Música.Wikcionario * Colabora en Wikiversidad. Wikiversidad alberga proyectos de aprendizaje sobre Música.

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Un payaso (del italiano pagliaccio), es un personaje estereotípico representado comúnmente con vestimentas extravagantes, maquillaje excesivo y pelucas llamativas. Generalmente se le asocia con un artista de circo, cuya función es hacer reír a la gente, gastar bromas, hacer piruetas y en ocasiones trucos divertidos. Sin embargo, en algunas culturas, la vestimenta y el maquillaje del payaso denotan una jerarquía, desde el maquillaje de vagabundo hasta la cara blanca. El artista puede hacer uso de maquillaje de base aceitosa o de agua. Asimismo, en algunas sociedades los payasos se relacionan con otros ámbitos y temas, sobre todo de la televisión, donde aparecen representados incluso como personajes malvados. También hay payasos del rodeo, quienes tienen una función importante pues deben distraer al toro y atraerlo para ayudar evitar que el vaquero sea lastimado por el animal. Su indumentaria puede incluir pañuelos colgantes a su cinturón. Contenido [ocultar] * 1 Indumentaria * 2 Miedo a los payasos * 3 En sentido figurado * 4 Payasos populares * 5 Payasos en la ficción * 6 Véase también * 7 Enlaces externos Indumentaria Clowns (2002). Suelen llevar peluca y zapatos gigantes. Habitualmente usan un traje de colores y tienen la cara maquillada de tonalidades llamativas, y la nariz es una pelota roja. En la vestimenta, existen diferentes tallas y tamaños, también en las narices de bola. Es una indumentaria tan representativa y tan respetable para el gremio de los payasos, que incluso en los funerales de cualquiera de sus miembros los miembros suelen asistir con todas sus prendas. Actualmente existen diversas escuelas para payasos que proporcionan técnicas y conocimientos sobre esta figura. Dependiendo del payaso, entre las habilidades que éste puede exhibir están la música, el malabarismo, la acrobacia, la torsión de globos y el arte de caminar con zancos. Un payaso es un personaje cómico y tierno nacido y desarrollado en las artes escénicas. Tiene sus antecedentes en la comedia romana, en la Commedia dell'arte italiana, en el circo moderno o en el cine mudo. Siempre anda metido en problemas y buscando la complicidad con el público para conseguir su empatía y simpatía. En solitario o en compañía, como parte de una historia teatral o cinematográfica, o como número de vodevil o circense. Improvisando en torno a un guión o como personaje de los importantes comediantes: Goldoni, Molière, Shakespeare, o Lope de Vega. Miedo a los payasos Clown fear.jpg Artículo principal: Coulrofobia A pesar de ser acompañado de connotaciones coloridas y festivas, mucha gente muestra incomodidad o temor hacia el personaje. Algunos grabados populares representan al payaso en una forma caricaturesca y perturbante. La fobia a los payasos se conoce con el nombre de coulrofobia.Se define como un persistente, anormal e injustificado miedo a los payasos. Es muy común en niños, pero en algunos casos persiste en adolescentes y adultos. Quienes sufren de esta fobia reconocen que lo que les asusta más es el maquillaje excesivo, su nariz de color rojo fuerte y sus extraños cabellos, lo que oculta su verdadera identidad. A menudo se adquiere este miedo luego de haber tenido una mala experiencia con payasos durante la infancia, o por haber visto el retrato de un payaso siniestro. No todos los que sufren de coulrofobia la experimentan en igual grado: algunos sienten un auténtico pánico, en otros es más bien un recelo que no llega a ser terror. En sentido figurado Figurativamente, también se suele llamar payaso a una persona irresponsable, necia o que no tiene seriedad en sus asuntos; aun cuando esta connotación es bastante peyorativa. También aplica para aquellos que cometen actos de ridiculez con frecuencia. Payasos populares * Brozo, Estados Unidos y México * Cepillín, Ciudad de México * Charlie Rivel, España * Gaby, Fofó y Miliki, España y Latinoamérica * Grock, Suiza * Hermanos Marx * Hunter "Patch" Adams, médico y payaso. * Leo Bassi * Manolín, Ciudad de México * Piñón Fijo payaso argentino de una serie televisiva infantil * Pipo, Monterrey * Popy, Venezuela * Tortell Poltrona, España * Toto Castiñeiras, Cirque du Soleil * Walter Bouchard Payasos en la ficción Cerámica de un payaso. * Sideshow Bob, de la serie de dibujos animados Los Simpson. * Buggy el payaso, en el manga y anime One Piece. * Corchito, el payasito de la felicidad, The happiness clown, de José Luis Ayerbe. Animación 3D en YouTube. * I Pagliacci (Los payasos), ópera de Ruggero Leoncavallo. * JoJo, personaje animado de televisión. * Koko el payaso, personaje de dibujos animados en blanco y negro, creado por Max Fleischer. * Krusty el payaso, de la serie de dibujos animados Los Simpson. * Binky el payaso, de la serie de dibujos animados Garfield y sus amigos. * Sweet Tooth, de la franquicia del videojuegos Twisted Metal * Pennywise, el payaso maléfico de la novela de Stephen King y su adaptación cinematográfica It (Eso). * The Joker (llamado El Guasón en algunos países hispanohablantes), villano del universo de la editorial DC Comics y archienemigo de Batman. * Violator conocido como Clown (Payaso) Villano principal de la serie Spawn Véase también * Coulrofobia * Circo * Humor * Chiste * Broma * Risa * Payasos asesinos del espacio exterior * Payasos en la lavadora Enlaces externos * Colabora en Commons. Wikimedia Commons alberga contenido multimedia sobre Payaso.

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Mariachi De Wikipedia, la enciclopedia libre Saltar a navegación, búsqueda Mariachi Mariachi Orígenes musicales: son jalisciense, sonecitos del país, canción rural Orígenes culturales: siglo XVIII, Jalisco, México Instrumentos comunes: guitarrón mexicano, guitarra de golpe, guitarra, vihuela, violín, trompeta, arpa Popularidad: México, sur de Estados Unidos, Colombia, Guatemala, El Salvador Los grupos de mariachi o mariachis son conjuntos musicales típicos de México, originarios de la región occidente en los actuales estados de Jalisco y Nayarit. Su musica y vestimenta tiene fama en todo el mundo. Aún representando una de las muchas facetas regionales de la música mexicana, el mariachi se ha extendido como símbolo de la cultura mexicana. La música interpretada por mariachis se acostumbra en México en fiestas públicas tales como el día de las Madres (10 de mayo) o el de la Virgen del Guadalupe (12 de diciembre), reuniones familiares o serenatas. Entre los autores de canciones para mariachi más importantes están Rubén Fuentes, José Alfredo Jiménez, Tomás Méndez y Manuel Esperón. Contenido [ocultar] * 1 Características * 2 Orígenes * 3 Hipótesis sobre el origen de la palabra * 4 Mariachis en el extranjero * 5 Repertorio de formas musicales * 6 Piezas representativas * 7 Referencias * 8 Véase también * 9 Enlaces externos [editar] Características * El mariachi, es un grupo musical conformado generalmente por un número entre 7 a 12 integrantes pero no existe un límite para el máximo. Los instrumentos indispensables son la vihuela, guitarra, guitarrón, violines y trompetas, aunque en ocasiones se le añaden flauta y arpa, y en el extranjero incluso el acordeón. * Interpretaban originalmente sones de Jalisco y del occidente de México pero desde la década de 1930 incluyeron en su repertorio rancheras, corridos, huapangos, sones jarochos y valses mexicanos es decir música tradicional y regional mexicana. Posteriormente se adaptó el bolero constituyendo el Bolero Ranchero y en la actualidad interpretan éxitos de cantantes de moda y en ocasiones hasta baladas y cumbias, ya fuera totalmente del contexto musical vernáculo. * Los primeros conjuntos de mariachi vistieron atuendos cotidianos de los campesinos de los estados de Colima, Nayarit y Jalisco. Sus atavíos eran hechos de manta de algodón y usaban un sombrero de paja de trigo o de palma. A principios del siglo XX, tal como venían haciendo los integrantes de las orquestas típicas, los mariachis comenzaron a presentarse con el traje de charro, añadiendo colores y ornamentos distintos a los originales del traje charro. * Los grupos actuales de mariachi visten generalmente de negro o blanco. De acuerdo al reglamento de la charrería, el traje del Charro (jinete hacendado ó caporal) es de color negro solamente para ceremonias tales como bodas o funerales, pero elcolor blanco no se contempla. Sin embargo, entre mariachis y bailarines se usa cualquier color y combinación así como ornamentos distintos a los usados por los practicantes de la charrería. Estas vestimentas se adornan con calados de gamuza y/ o con botonaduras, que pueden ser de metal troquelado, ya sea fabricado en serie o de manera artesanal, en plata o acero vaciado. Los sombreros de charro y de mariachi son piezas de artesanía exquisita que no tienen parecido con los que se venden en las tiendas de recuerdos para turistas. * El cine mexicano de los años cuarenta dio a conocer internacionalmente al mariachi por medio de las películas protagonizadas por Tito Guízar que fueron las primeras en mostrarse con éxito en Estados Unidos y por Jorge Negrete en América Latina y Europa. El Mariachi era un elemento imprescindible en las películas protragonizadas por Miguel Aceves Mejía, Pedro Infante y Luis Aguilar, entre otros, que gozaron de gran aceptación en América Latina y en otras regiones del mundo. * Los primeros mariachis femeniles aparecieron en la Ciudad de México a mediados del siglo XX, actualmente se conocen diversas agrupaciones de Mariachi Femenil. * En el Distrito Federal la Plaza de Garibaldi, ubicada en el centro histórico, es por antonomasia es el foro más importante de mariachis en la Ciudad de México. Allí se puede contratar a grupos que tocan piezas por un monto económico. * En la ciudad de Guadalajara, capital del Estado donde surgió el mariachi, cada año tiene lugar el Encuentro Internacional del Mariachi y la Charrería, este evento está dividido en dos aspectos: a) el deportivo, con encuentros y competiciones de charros y b) el musical con conciertos y presentaciones de grupos de mariachis. Cada año, llegan conjuntos de mariachi de países como Serbia, Finlandia, Colombia, España y Japón, además de los que se presentan agrupaciones de toda América Latina. Además de concursos y conciertos, se imparten talleres y clínicas que han ayudado a los grupos fuera de México a mejorar su vestimenta y sobre todo su estilo y técnica interpretativa. [editar] Orígenes El mariachi con trompetas deriva del mariachi tradicional sin trompetas de principios del siglo XIX. Mariachi en Guadalajara, Jalisco. El diccionario de mexicanismos de la Academia Mexicana de la Lengua recoge para mariachi. (Quizá de origen coca.) 1. Grupo de músicos, cuyos integrantes visten a la usanza charra. 2. Cada uno de los músicos de ese grupo[1]. Mientras que el Diccionario de la Real Academia Española (DRAE) presenta mariachi o mariachis para los grupos de orquesta popular mexicana que interpreta esta música o bien a la música y baile populares mexicanos procedentes del estado mexicano de Jalisco o bien los miembros de esa agrupación musical o el conjunto instrumental que acompaña a los cantantes de ciertas danzas y aires populares mexicanos[2]. El mariachi original estaba integrado sólo por instrumentos de cuerda como son violines y guitarras, y dos intrumentos particulares: la vihuela, más aguda que la guitarra, y el otro más grave, el guitarrón, además del arpa. Con el tiempo se integraron además las trompetas que le añaden su peculiar estilo y fuerza. El texto de una conocida canción dice: "De Cocula es el Mariachi, de Tecalitlán los sones"; sin embargo aún se debate sobre el origen de estos conjuntos musicales porque el mariachi se asocia a la región llamada Los Altos, al norte del estado de Jalisco, y Cocula no pertenece específicamente a esta región, pero se ubica muy cerca. Teocaltiche, Jalisco también presume de ser el origen del mariachi, ya que este si está en la región de Los Altos. Aunque Cocula es más famoso por el origen del mariachi, es más probable que el mariachi sea originario de Teocaltiche. Mariachi cantando. [editar] Hipótesis sobre el origen de la palabra Uno de los mitos sobre el origen de la palabra "mariachi" supone que en los tiempos de la Invasión Francesa (acaecida en 1862), durante una boda de rancheros en un poblado de Jalisco llegaron unos soldados franceses, quienes sorprendidos ante tal jolgorio, en el que los músicos tenían un papel muy importante, preguntaron sobre aquella fiesta. El interlocutor lógicamente contestó: “C’est un mariage� (en francés), y así fue como los franceses denominaron al conjunto musical. Para el investigador Jesús Jáuregui, la hipótesis galicista se comenzó a manejar desde las primeras presentaciones radiofónicas en la Ciudad de México, del mariachi de Concho Andrade, precursor de estas agrupaciones en la capital. Un dato curioso es que Manuel Esperón, uno de los más grandes compositores de música ranchera, sí es de ascendencia francesa. Ricardo Espinosa afirmaba en su columna “Como dijo� -publicada en El Sol de México el 8 de abril del 2001- que el vocablo mariachi deriva de un canto aborigen a la Virgen María, en el que se mezclan el náhuatl, el español y el latín. “Este canto empezaba diciendo ‘Maria ce son’... que quería decir ‘te amo María’�. Según Espinosa, la teoría es resultado de las investigaciones del canónigo Luis Enrique Orozco, historiador de la arquidiócesis de Guadalajara, basadas en un documento encontrado en Cocula que data del año 1695. El historiador Hermes Rafael, de la Sociedad Mexicana de Geografía y Estadística es autor de varios artículos acerca del origen del mariachi y afirma que el origen de los sones de mariachi así como el vocablo provienen de los indígenas "cocas" de Cocula.[1] Este investigador argumenta que los mariachis se dieron a conocer en la Ciudad de México antes que en Guadalajara, capital del estado de Jalisco. Mariache o mariachi es una tradición musical del occidente mexicano. En un principio se refería al espacio festivo: músicos, música, baile. No hay lugar particular o preciso que permita ubicar dónde surgió tal tradición. La referencia más antigua aparece en una ranchería de Nayarit. Pedro Castillo Romero. 1973. "Santiago Ixcuintla, Cuna del Mariachi Mexicano", ofrece la primera pista para localizar dicha palabra (Mariache, Mariachi, Marriache) en el Archivo Parroquial de Santiago Ixcuintla. La Estadística General del Departamento de Jalisco de 1838 descarta la versión francesa de la palabra "mariage" asociada a Mariache o Mariachi. Véanse también. Jesús Jáuregui. Mariachi símbolo musical de México (dos ediciones) �lvaro Ochoa Serrano. Mitote, Fandango y Mariacheros (4a ed. 2008) [editar] Mariachis en el extranjero * Los conjuntos de mariachi tienen especial arraigo en Venezuela, donde es usual contratar a conjuntos para celebraciones de todo tipo, también son populares en Colombia y El Salvador. En Estados Unidos, debido a la penetración de la cultura inmigrante mexicana, los mariachis son indispensables en fiestas propias de la comunidad mexico-estadounidense como la del Cinco de Mayo que en México propiamente es una fiesta menor. * En Europa, es en España donde existen agrupaciones de mariachis debido en gran medida a los emigrantes repatriados desde México, entre quienes la música de mariachi suele formar partede celebraciones familiares. A los mariachis también se les puede escuchar en verbenas populares en las grandes ciudades. [editar] Repertorio de formas musicales Las formas musicales que interpreta el mariachi son: * Métrica de 2/4 (binaria) * Canción ranchera (a dos tiempos) - "La ley del monte" * Corrido (a dos tiempos) - "El moro de Cumpas" * Polka mexicana - "Las bicicletas" * Pasodoble - "El hidalguense" * Marcha - "Marcha de Zacatecas" * Métrica de 3/4 (ternaria) * Canción ranchera (a tres tiempos) - "Ella" * Corrido (a tres tiempos) - "El caballo blanco" * Vals mexicano - "Alejandra" * Métrica de 4/4 (binaria) * Bolero ranchero - "Entrega total" * Danzón - "Salón México" * Chotís lento - "Las golondrinas" * Danza - "El Condor Pasa" * Métrica de 6/8 * Son de mariachi - "El Son de la Negra" * Huapango de mariachi - "El pastor" * Sones regionales (adaptaciones) - "La Bamba" * Métrica combinada * Jarabe - "Jarabe tapatío" * Otras mixturas - "Muerte de un gallero" (corrido-son) * Otras * Oberturas de música clásica - "Las bodas de Luis Alonso" * Ópera - "Carmen" * Música religiosa - Misa * Canción festera - "El mariachi loco" * Balada [editar] Piezas representativas Algunas de las canciones más representativas y conocidas alrededor del Mundo son Cielito Lindo de Elpidio Ramírez y El Rey de José Alfredo Jiménez, quien también compuso: * Ella. * Media vuelta. * Camino de Guanajuato. * El Rey. * El siete mares. * Cuando los años pasen. * Deja que salga la luna. * El último trago. * Me equivoqué contigo. * Paloma querida. * Que se me acabe la vida. * Que te vaya bonito. * Serenata huasteca. * Un mundo raro * El Jinete. Del compositor Manuel Esperón son, entre otras, las siguientes canciones: * Serenata Tapatía * Ay Jalisco No te Rajes * Amorcito Corazón (Bolero Ranchero) * Cocula * Esos Altos de Jalisco * El Topetón * El Charro Mexicano * Hasta que perdió Jalisco * Tequila con Limón * Me he de comer esa Tuna * Noche Plateada [editar] Referencias 1. ↑ Música opinión - El Universal - Columnas [editar] Véase también * Mariachi tradicional * Charro * Corrido [editar] Enlaces externos * Colabora en Commons. Wikimedia Commons alberga contenido multimedia sobre Mariachi.

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Magia (del latín magia, derivado a su vez del griego μαγεία, de igual significado que en español, probablemente del antiguo persa magush, que contiene la raíz magh-: "ser capaz", "tener poder"; haciendo referencia a la antigua casta sacerdotal persa)[1] [2] es el arte con el que, mediante conocimientos y prácticas se pretende producir resultados contrarios a las leyes naturales conocidas valiéndose de ciertos actos o palabras, o bien con la intervención de seres fantásticos. Contenido [ocultar] * 1 Generalidades * 2 Historia * 3 La magia en la Antropología Simbólica o 3.1 La magia según Frazer o 3.2 El paso de la magia a la religión * 4 Sistemas de magia * 5 Brujeria o 5.1 Animismo o 5.2 Chamanismo o 5.3 Candomblé o 5.4 Vudú o 5.5 Umbanda o 5.6 Quimbanda o 5.7 Wicca * 6 Magia clásica, Teosofía y Nuevas magias contemporaneas o 6.1 Magia sexual o 6.2 Thelema o 6.3 Samael Aun Weor o 6.4 Ordo Templi Orientis o 6.5 Magia luciférica o 6.6 Magia enoquiana o 6.7 Magia musical * 7 Bibliografía * 8 Referencias * 9 Bibliografía complementaria * 10 Véase también [editar] Generalidades Bandera vudú. La magia, es el acto o representación explícita por la cual el individuo cree demostrar su reconocimiento de la existencia de una o varias deidades o fuerzas que tienen poder sobre su destino, a quienes obedece, sirve y honra. Básicamente, la praxis mágica consiste en la transacción entre el ser humano y estas potencias para torcerlas a su favor. La magia sería una forma de pensar que permea el pensamiento y a veces la vida del individuo, desde simplemente elegir un color determinado a una vocación. Desde un punto de vista más amplio, magia designa las creencias metafísicas, cuyo elemento central y diferenciador es la capacidad humana de modificar la realidad sin medios estrictamente causales. La magia en general es también designada a menudo como brujería. Muchos inventos modernos son magia para las sociedades primitivas, y suplen las capacidades buscadas por los antiguos magos. El pensamiento mágico origen de la magia, consiste en ciertas creencias de lógica indemostrable. Suele estar basado en percepciones psíquicas subjetivas del individuo/colectivo, pudiendo haber sido condicionado por otras personas que haya conocido o aceptando de algún modo las teorías de dichos individuos con esas creencias. En psiquiatría, varias enfermedades mentales y trastornos de personalidad se caracterizan por diversos grados de pensamiento mágico. Estudios sobre el pensamiento mágico: * Ocultismo, es el estudio de las doctrinas ocultas de las diversas religiones y filosofías, haciendo hincapié en los fenómenos paranormales y los poderes ocultos del ser humano. * Esoterismo, es el estudio y la práctica de tradiciones esotéricas, es decir, vinculadas a corrientes religiosas y filosóficas importantes, pero (al menos en origen) desconocidas o secretas para el gran público. * Pseudociencia (‘falsa ciencia’; del griego pseudo: ‘falso’ y scientia: ‘conocimiento’) es un término que da cuenta de un conjunto de supuestos conocimientos, metodologías, prácticas o creencias no científicas pero que reclaman dicho carácter. Este concepto es utilizado por los enfoques epistemológicos preocupados por el criterio de demarcación de la ciencia y tiene mayor consenso entre las ciencias exactas y naturales. * Superstición es la creencia, no fundamentada, o asentada de forma irracional en el hombre, de que diversas acciones voluntarias como: rezos, ensalmos, conjuros, hechizos, maldiciones u otros rituales), o involuntarias: como la caída de sal al suelo o la llegada de un martes 13), pueden alterar el destino o la suerte de una persona. Se incluyen entre las supersticiones la adivinación y sus distintas disciplinas astrología, quiromancia, cartomancia o tarot, geomancia o feng-shui, espiritismo etc. Sin embargo, hay que resaltar que la actual utilización de palabras (del lenguaje) para lograr cambios en una persona, en ocasiones incluso sin que lo sepa, es la base de muchas psicoterapias, incluyendo el psicoanálisis. Asimismo, la utilización de técnicas como la sugestión, la hipnosis y la programación neurolingüística PNL, e incluso los placebos, son herramientas de cambio conductual que en la antigüedad pudieron ser atribuidos a encantamientos, hechizos, brujería, magia, o milagros en caso de religión. También hay que mencionar los conocidos efectos de las profecías autocumplidas en las que una afirmación respecto al futuro, en forma de profecía, desencadena una serie de sucesos que terminan ocasionando lo que se había predicho. La diferencia de todas estas técnicas con la magia, es la ausencia de atribución de poderes a entidades espirituales o metafísicas. Por otro lado, la palabra mágico también es utilizada para referirse a fenómenos que no tienen una explicación racional. Lo inexplicable puede ser «mágico». A veces para referirse a sentimientos como el amor, la felicidad, cuando hay algo que no se puede definir «hay magia». [editar] Historia El término magia deriva de magi, uno de los elementos religiosos incorporados por los magos en la antigua Babilonia. Hubo magos en Roma, en Grecia y en casi todo el mundo occidental y oriental de la Antigüedad, cuando la magia o hechicería populares estaban relacionadas con antiguos ritos de fertilidad e iniciación en el conocimiento en los pueblos llamados bárbaros, principalmente los chinos. La magia y la hechicería estaban ligadas también a las creencias de pueblos orientales muy antiguos, en los que el mago o brujo era a la vez un sanador y un conocedor del mundo invisible de los espíritus y desempeñaba un papel preponderante en la comunidad. En Grecia y Roma los adivinos y magos no tenían ya nada que ver con los chamanes, aunque eran consultados sobre todo por los poderes de adivinación de los que se creía estaban dotados. En la Europa medieval la magia estuvo relacionada con la alquimia y la astrología, actividades ocultas consideradas demoníacas por la Iglesia Católica, y que fueron objeto de persecución especialmente durante la Baja Edad Media y la Era Moderna. Unas 500.000 personas resultaron procesadas y gran parte ejecutadas por tribunales civiles y religiosos, acusadas de brujería, a lo largo de casi cinco siglos. Hubo procesos por brujería hasta el siglo XIX, tanto en Europa como en Norteamérica. En Europa el Tribunal de la Inquisición desarrolló un papel preponderante en estos hechos. Debe señalarse que ninguna de las grandes religiones acepta la magia, tampoco otras creencias cristianas. En lo que respecta a las religiones judeocristianas en particular, ya se encuentran referencias negativas a los magos en el Antiguo y Nuevo Testamento. La antropología distingue hoy día entre magia y religión, y coloca a la magia en un plano paralelo al de la evolución de las religiones. La interrelación de los mitos antiguos de las más diversas culturas, sus similitudes y relación con las religiones animistas, en las que la magia desempeñaba un papel central, fueron estudiadas por el antropólogo británico James George Frazer en su obra monumental La rama dorada. Merecieron también una amplia consideración por parte del psiquiatra Carl Jung, quien desarrolló la teoría del inconsciente colectivo. El hermetismo (llamado la antigua ciencia en el medievo) influyó en el pensamiento del Renacimiento. Esta pseudociencia se vincula, en algunos aspectos, con el mantenimiento de antiguas creencias que, como la magia, conducían al conocimiento y manejo de las leyes espirituales del universo. En 1463, Cosme de Médici encargó la traducción de la obra de Hermes Trimegisto, que se suponía escrita en el antiguo Egipto pero que, para muchos, data de los primeros siglos de la era cristiana y que es la piedra angular del movimiento hermético o gnóstico (de gnosis, conocimiento). La adivinación mediante el tarot fue una actividad frecuente en el nacimiento de la Era Moderna y los sistemas de símbolos desarrollados por los cartománticos para el conocimiento de la realidad presente y futura son claramente deudores de otros métodos de adivinación practicados por los magos, entre ellos la lectura del vuelo de las aves y de las entrañas de los animales sacrificados. Prácticas de simple hechicería, adivinación, astrología, lectura de barajas y de libros oraculares como el antiquísimo I Ching, de los chinos, o el alfabeto rúnico de los escandinavos, aspectos del hinduismo, el yoga y hasta la creencia en la divinidad de civilizaciones extraterrestes y su presencia entre los humanos constituyeron desde mediados del siglo XX un conglomerado débilmente articulado que se conoció como movimiento de la Nueva Era (en inglés New Age). La magia ha sido muy perseguida en la Historia (por corrientes religiosas o sociales) y, aún hoy, contrastando sus teorías por medio del método científico; aunque en otro tiempos hubiera significado la muerte para el mago. [editar] La magia en la Antropología Simbólica [editar] La magia según Frazer Chamán de la tribu urarina, 1988. Según Frazer, el pensamiento en el que se fundamenta el concepto de la magia consiste en un conjunto de prácticas y creencias a los que individuos de una sociedad recurren, para crear un beneficio o conseguir un fin, relacionándolas a su vez con cierto orden en la naturaleza, ya sea como grupo, cuando una limitante natural afecta severamente en la organización social del mismo (una sequía o la infertilidad)(hechicería), o a nivel individual, cuando se requiere, por ejemplo, deshacerse de un enemigo que amenaza la vida (tabú). Los evolucionistas distinguieron notablemente las profesiones públicas bajo las que se constituía una u otra sociedad; * La función del mago desempeñó en muchas sociedades un papel fundamental en la toma de decisiones importantes. * Los consejos de mayores, distinguiéndose en general la tendencia a los consejos de mayores, quienes representaban la cabeza de gobierno de las sociedades «salvajes». Representó un punto medular en los estudios que trataron de comprender la organización de sociedades no occidentales que contrastaban con las occidentales. Se puede dividir en dos vertientes de análisis, por los procesos mentales, según los principios abstractos en los que se basa la práctica de la magia, bajo una ley denominada de empatía. Es por esta razón que en está línea de pensamiento la magia es predecesor a la religión en una escala evolutiva, es decir, que la magia corresponde a un estadio de grado de evolución de ciertas sociedades consideradas salvajes y la religión a otras que se suponen con mayor grado de civilización. He ahí el interés de su estudio, que trató de comprender el punto en que la magia deja de ser tal para convertirse en religión y así marcar un avance social hacia otro estadio evolutivo. Frazer entiende a la magia como la expresión de reglas que determinan la consecución de acontecimientos en todo el mundo, como magia teórica; y considerada como una serie de reglas que los humanos cumplirán con objeto de conseguir sus fines, como magia práctica. Esta se divide en dos tipos, cada uno de ellos se funda bajo los principios de semejanza y contacto: * Magia imitativa. Relacionada a que lo semejante produce lo semejante. Esto se refiere a los efectos provocados a algo o a alguien semejaran a las causas que lo provocaron, se puede abarcar desde quien usa la magia, quien la práctica, hasta con que fines. * Magia contaminante. Que se alude a las cosas que una vez estuvieron en contacto se actúan recíprocamente a distancia uniéndolos por siempre un lazo, después de haber sido separados, también presente en la Homeopatía. Para llegar a un entendimiento es necesario recurrir a ejemplos que puedan figurar dentro de estos esquemas. En La Rama Dorada de Frazer, en todo momento refiere ejemplos de sociedades exóticas, por así llamarles, que hasta cierto punto parecen estar intactas ante el mundo occidental, aunque lo cierto es que estás sociedades se encontraban ya teniendo contacto con el hombre occidental, quien se hallaba colonizando sus territorios. Es de relevancia mencionar la consecuencia colonial del mestizaje, que no sólo es de manera racial, como se abordaría en el punto de vista biológico, sino que ante todo responde al intercambio socio-cultural. A manera de ejemplo podemos tomar a la llamada santería que, a rasgos generales, es considerada como un conjunto de elementos que componen al catolicismo y a las tradiciones yorubas que importaron los esclavos negros capturados en Nigeria y trasladados a Cuba. Esta conjugación de sistemas religiosos sigue siendo practicada hasta nuestros días en diversas partes de Latinoamérica, y no sólo es regida por la devoción a los santos identificados con los orishas, sino que implica una jerarquía sacerdotal. Un ejemplo claro de la magia contaminante es cuando para la iniciación de un sacerdote, le es entregada cierta cantidad de collares durante el rito, que le permitirán representar a cierta cantidad de orishas y estar en contacto con ellos a través del sacrificio de cabras u otro animal. Estas creencias y prácticas también implican que la resolución de ciertos problemas, como devolver la salud a alguien que lo solicitó, se deben a que se invocó al espíritu de sus ancestros y se llevó la ofrenda al orishá indicado. Esto es magia imitativa e implica creencias animistas. [editar] El paso de la magia a la religión Frazer considera que los principios de asociación de ideas aplicados de manera errónea producen la magia, a la que incluso considera como «hermana bastarda de la ciencia».[cita requerida] Frazer considera que el primer golpe que transformó a la humanidad para desistir de la magia como regla de fe y práctica, fue al reconocer «su impotencia para manejar a placer ciertas fuerzas naturales que hasta entonces se habían supuesto dentro de su mandato».[cita requerida] Dentro de esta concepción es posible entender que la inteligencia de los hombres comenzaba a percibir que la práctica de la magia no producía precisamente los resultados esperados, que con anterioridad significaban una realidad. A esto le continuó un largo período de un pensamiento reflexivo que hizo la transición hacia la religión de manera gradual, por el mayor conocimiento de las fuerzas con un poder superior al del hombre y el desarrollo del conocimiento. Frazer concluye que el paso definitivo de la magia a la religión se da en «la confesión de la entera y absoluta dependencia del hombre con respecto a lo divino»,[cita requerida] culmina con la sumisión del hombre ante la inmensidad del universo. Actualmente, no obstante, se considera impracticable el establecimiento de una frontera enfática entre magia y religión, mucho menos bajo una premisa evolucionista unilineal como la planteada por Frazer. Es el caso de la cultura mesopotámica, donde religión y magia coexisten dentro del corpus social hasta el punto de ser indiscernibles. [editar] Sistemas de magia Artículo principal: Brujería La antropología distingue la hechicería tradicional de las primeras sociedades. De ella han derivado muchos sincretismos: * Brujería. Corresponde al brujo, que se consideraba vinculado con la magia negra. * Brujería diabólica: influenciada por el cristianismo, es aquélla en la que se rinde culto al Diablo. [editar] Brujeria Es la forma más simple de magia practicada en las sociedades antiguas. Se basa en la manipulación de la materia y en la analogía. El hechicero recurre a pociones, fetiches, animales y diferentes objetos para lograr sus fines. En su viejo origen la palabra farmacia, del griego pharmakía, se refería a la preparación de pociones y venenos. Luego pasó al uso actual de auxiliar de la medicina, de pharmakon, medicamento. [editar] Animismo Artículo principal: Animismo El Animismo engloba diversas creencias en las que seres personalizados sobrenaturales (o espíritus) habitan objetos animados e inanimados. Si bien dentro de esta concepción caben múltiples variantes del fenómeno. Chamán en un baile de conjuro. [editar] Chamanismo Artículo principal: Chamanismo El Chamanismo se refiere a una clase de creencias y prácticas tradicionales similares al animismo que aseguran la capacidad de diagnosticar y de curar el sufrimiento del ser humano y, en algunas sociedades, la capacidad de causarlo. Sistema que dio origen a diversos cultos y religiones y cuyo origen remonta a la edad de Piedra. El chamán es una especie de curandero, con poderes mágicos especiales. [editar] Candomblé Artículo principal: Candomblé Sistema semejante al Vudú es popular en Brasil. Consiste en la invocación de ciertas deidades llamadas Orixás. [editar] Vudú Artículo principal: Vudú Sistema popular en Haití. Semejante al Candomblé. [editar] Umbanda Artículo principal: Umbanda Fusión de las religiones afro-brasileñas, especialmente el Candomblé, con el espiritismo kardecista, con predominancia de este último. Difiere del Candomblé, también, por considerar varios tipos de orixás como espíritus de personas muertas. [editar] Quimbanda Artículo principal: Quimbanda Sistema de magia que trata de la invocación de entidades llamadas Exus, pudiéndose con la ayuda de esas entidades, hacer tanto el bien como el mal. [editar] Wicca Artículo principal: Wicca Es una religión neopagana aparecida como un 'renacimiento' de la antigua religión de la brujería e iniciada por Gerald Gardner. La misma ha sido reformada por muchos practicantes y covens no tradicionalistas que no se sienten cómodos con las primeras enseñanzas de Gardner. Un eclecticismo, en la cual la mayoría de sus practicantes utilizan la magia cuidadosamente en auxilio de la evolución humana. Muchos wiccanos acuden primeramente al uso de oráculos para consultar si es conveniente realizar magia en cierta situación. La magia en la Wicca se define como el arte de enviar conciencia a voluntad, en ocasiones respaldando estos pensamientos o está fe con objetos o hierbas que representen la intención del Mago Wicca. [editar] Magia clásica, Teosofía y Nuevas magias contemporaneas La magia contemporánea encuentra sus raíces en el trabajo de iniciados como Eliphas Levi y Papus. La Teosofía, o la moderna Teosofía, tiene como uno de sus fundadores Helena Petrovna Blavatsky, que fue a buscar a oriente la fuente de su sistema filosófico. Este sistema no se presenta exactamente como los sistemas utilizados por los estudiosos de magia ,es mas, pretende transmitir el conocimiento esotérico universal que estaría contenido en todas las tradiciones filosóficas o religiosas. Blavatsky considera, por ejemplo, que todos los hombres son magos en el sentido último de la palabra, pues todos pueden utilizar el poder creador divino, sea a través del pensamiento, la palabra o la acción. [editar] Magia sexual Se agrupan en este tópico diversos sistemas: Thelemita, gnóstico, etc., que debe ser ciertamente diferenciado del Tantra con el cual guarda algunos puntos de relación. La base de estos sistemas es el concepto de que el sexo es sagrado. La magia sexual se divide en diversos sistemas diferentes y con divergencias, algunos de ellos derivados del sistema originalmente desarrollado por Paschal Beverly Randolph y después por Theodor Reuss en la Ordo Templi Orientis (O.T.O.) y por Aleister Crowley, por el Sr. Kenneth Grant y por el artista Austin Osman Spare. Citamos entre los diversos sistemas de magia sexual: * Ansariético: Creado por los Ansarichs o Aluítas (en inglés: Ansaireth o ainda Nusairis) en la Siria antigua * Eulis: Creado por Pascal Beverly Randolph, un iniciado entre los Aluítas * Sistema de la 0. T. 0.: Sistema de magia sexual que guarda alguna relación con algunas ramas de Tantra Oriental*Sistema da Fraternitas Saturni: derivado de O.T.O. * Sistema Maatiano: Creado por disidentes de O.T.O. * Sistema da 0. T. O. A.: Derivado de O.T.O., hace uso de prácticas astrales de magia sexual * Caos: Sistema mágico que incluye la «magia auto-sexual» * Movimento Gnóstico Cristiano Universal: Sistema de magia sexual acentuadamente ascético fundado por el neo-gnóstico Samael Aun Weor * TAO: Iglesia Tao Cristiana Universal Movimiento S.O.S de rescate interoseanico: Creado por Kelium Zeus y su hijo Samel Joab Bathor Weor. * T.O.T.O. Corriente Thelémica Tifoniana desarrollada por el Sr. Grant. * Zos Kia Cultus. Sistema de Hechicería inventado por A.O.S. * La Couleuvre Noire. Culto de Vodoun moderno que utiliza la magick sexual junto con la corriente ofidiana dirigido por Michael Bertiaux. * Sexo Dhármico: Meditación Holo-orgásmica y Eco-Tantra. Corriente contemporánea desarrollada por el autor y ocultista Yhao Hani. [editar] Thelema Artículo principal: Thelema Filosofía, Culto o Religión, dependiendo del punto de vista, creado por Aleister Crowley a partir del Liber AL vel Legis (el libro de la ley). Con la recepción de ese libro se inició una nueva era, Eón de Horus, donde el ser humano se percibe como centro de su propio universo. Thelema, en griego, significa voluntad. [editar] Samael Aun Weor Artículo principal: Samael Aun Weor El colombiano Víctor Manuel Gómez R. (Samael Aun Weor), fundador del Movimento Gnóstico Cristiano Universal, tomando la magia sexual como uno de los pilares fundamentales de lo que llamó «revolución de la conciencia». Su principal característica es lo que el propio autor llama de «ascética revolucionaria de la Era de Acuario». De acuerdo con el autor, metafísicamente, su proceso consiste en «mezcla inteligente del ansia sexual con el entusiasmo espiritual», esta consiste, en suma, en la conexión de los órganos genitales masculinos y femeninos llamados por los términos ioni y lingam (en idioma sánscrito), evitándose el orgasmo, tanto masculino como femenino, la pérdida del semen y transmutando, mediante procesos indicados en sus libros, el semen en energia, luz y conciencia. [editar] Ordo Templi Orientis La Ordo Templi Orientis, fundada por Theodor Reuss y Karl Kellner al principio del siglo XX se basó inicialmente en la aplicación del tantra sexual con una estructura que recuerda a la masonería. Cuando el ocultista inglés Aleister Crowley, fue admitido en esta Orden, sus rituales y filosofía básica fueron reformulados para ser interpretados y trabajados bajo la llamada ley de thelema. La O. T. O. acabó siendo el origen de diversas disidencias que adoptaron diferentes perspectivas sobre la magia. De entre las disidencias que realizan una labor considerada seria podemos citar a la Ordo Templi Orientis Antiqua (O. T. O. A.) y a la Ordo Templi Orientis Tifoniana (Typhonyan O. T. O. o TOTO). [editar] Magia luciférica Sistema de Fraternitas Saturni. Es un sistema parecido al de OTO, centralizando sus prácticas en la magia sexual (en especial en las prácticas del «sendero de la izquierda») y en la magia ritualística. La diferencia principal en relación a la O.T.O. es que, en tanto esta busca la fusión individualizada con la energía creadora, como idea central, la Fraternitas Saturni busca elevar el espíritu humano a una condición de divinidad, representada por Lucifer. El sistema posee 33 grados. [editar] Magia enoquiana La magia enoquiana es un sistema simbólicamente complejo, que consiste en la evocación de ángeles enokianos, descubierto por el astrólogo John Dee y por su vidente, Edward Kelley. El sistema fue posteriormente estudiado por la Aurora Dorada Golden Dawn y por Aleister Crowley. [editar] Magia musical Creado por una renombrada ocultista, Juanita Wescott, estudiosa del sistema de Franz Bardon. El sistema de la magia musical hace uso del hermetismo y de la cábala. [editar] Bibliografía * Caro Baroja, Julio (1997). Las brujas y su mundo. Madrid: Alianza Editorial. ISBN 84-206-1012-7. * Frazer, James George (2006). La rama dorada. México: Fondo de Cultura Económica. ISBN 978-968-16-0122-5. * Lisón Tolosana, Carmelo (1992). Las brujas en la historia de España. Madrid, Temas de Hoy. ISBN 84-7880-219-3. * Luck, Georg (1995). Magia y Ciencias Ocultas en el Mundo Griego y Romano. Madrid: Editorial Gredos. ISBN 978-84-249-1785-2. * Tausiet, María (2007). Abracadabra Omnipotens: magia urbana en Zaragoza en la Edad Moderna. Madrid, Siglo XXI. ISBN 978-84-323-1286-1. * VV.AA. (1987). Textos de Magia en Papiros Griegos. Introducción, traducción y notas de José Luis Calvo Martínez y María Dolores Sánchez Romero. Madrid: Editorial Gredos. ISBN 978-84-249-1235-2. * VV. AA. (1999). Textos Herméticos. Introducción, traducción y notas de Xavier Renau Nebot. Madrid: Editorial Gredos. ISBN 978-84-249-2246-7. * Wittgenstein, Ludwig (2001 (2ª edición)). Observaciones a "La Rama Dorada" de Frazer. Madrid: Editorial Tecnos. ISBN 978-84-309-2158-4

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Diversión De Wikipedia, la enciclopedia libre Saltar a navegación, búsqueda Gente participando en luge de verano como una forma de diversión, en los Vosgos. Question book.svg Este artículo o sección necesita referencias que aparezcan en una publicación acreditada, como revistas especializadas, monografías, prensa diaria o páginas de Internet fidedignas. Puedes añadirlas así o avisar al autor principal del artículo en su página de discusión pegando: {{subst:Aviso referencias|Diversión}} ~~~~ La diversión es el uso del tiempo de una manera planeada para el refresco terapéutico del propio cuerpo o mente. Mientras que el ocio es más bien una forma de entretenimiento o descanso, la diversión implica participación activa pero de una manera refrescante y divertida. A medida que la gente de las regiones más ricas del mundo lleva cada vez estilos de vida más sedentarios, la necesidad de la diversión se incrementa. El aumento de las llamadas vacaciones activas ejemplifica esta tendencia. El entretenimiento es importante porque ayuda a mantener un equilibrio en la vida entre los deberes y ocupaciones, y una salud física y mental

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cre·ate    /kriˈeɪt/ Show Spelled [kree-eyt] Show IPA verb, -at·ed, -at·ing, adjective –verb (used with object) 1. to cause to come into being, as something unique that would not naturally evolve or that is not made by ordinary processes. 2. to evolve from one's own thought or imagination, as a work of art or an invention. 3. Theater . to perform (a role) for the first time or in the first production of a play. 4. to make by investing with new rank or by designating; constitute; appoint: to create a peer. 5. to be the cause or occasion of; give rise to: The announcement created confusion. 6. to cause to happen; bring about; arrange, as by intention or design: to create a revolution; to create an opportunity to ask for a raise. –verb (used without object) 7. to do something creative or constructive. 8. British . to make a fuss. –adjective 9. Archaic . created. Use create in a Sentence See images of create Search create on the Web Origin: 1350–1400; ME creat (ptp.) < L cre�tus, equiv. to cre�- (s. of cre�re to make) + -tus ptp. suffix —Related forms cre·at·a·ble, adjective in·ter·cre·ate, verb (used with object), -at·ed, -at·ing. self-cre·at·ed, adjective self-cre·at·ing, adjective un·cre·at·a·ble, adjective un·cre·at·ed, adjective —Synonyms 2. originate, invent. Dictionary.com Unabridged Based on the Random House Dictionary, © Random House, Inc. 2011. Cite This Source | Link To create Explore the Visual Thesaurus » Related Words for : create make, produce View more related words » World English Dictionary create (kri�ˈeɪt) [Click for IPA pronunciation guide] — vb 1. ( tr ) to cause to come into existence 2. ( tr ) to invest with a new honour, office, or title; appoint 3. ( tr ) to be the cause of: these circumstances created the revolution 4. ( tr ) to act (a role) in the first production of a play 5. ( intr ) to be engaged in creative work 6. slang ( Brit ) ( intr ) to make a fuss or uproar [C14 creat created, from Latin cre�tus, from cre�re to produce, make] cre'atable — adj Collins English Dictionary - Complete & Unabridged 10th Edition 2009 © William Collins Sons & Co. Ltd. 1979, 1986 © HarperCollins Publishers 1998, 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006, 2007, 2009 Cite This Source Word Origin & History create late 14c., from L. creatus , pp. of creare "to make, produce," related to crescere "arise, grow" (see crescent). Online Etymology Dictionary, © 2010 Douglas Harper Cite This Source Famous Quotations create "Lack of patience in small matters can create havoc in g..." "When there are no troubles in the world, fools will cre..." "Everyone who enjoys supposes that the tree was concerne..." "Of all the souls that stand create— I have elected..." "Here's much to do with hate, but more with love. W..." More Quotes

personalized Return to the top

Personalization involves using technology to accommodate the differences between individuals. Once confined mainly to the Web, it is increasingly becoming a factor in education, health care (i.e. personalized medicine), television, and in both "business to business" and "business to consumer" settings. Contents [hide] * 1 Web pages * 2 Digital media * 3 Mobile Phones * 4 Search engines * 5 Print media * 6 Promotional merchandise * 7 Mass personalization o 7.1 Advantages of personalization and mass customization o 7.2 Disadvantages to personalization * 8 See also * 9 References * 10 External links [edit] Web pages See also: Web pages and Adaptive hypermedia Web pages are personalized based on the characteristics (interests, social category, context, ...) of an individual. Personalization implies that the changes are based on implicit data, such as items purchased or pages viewed. The term customization is used instead when the site only uses explicit data such as ratings or preferences. On an intranet or B2E Enterprise Web portals, personalization is often based on user attributes such as department, functional area, or role. The term customization in this context refers to the ability of users to modify the page layout or specify what content should be displayed. There are three categories of personalizations: 1. Profile / Group based 2. Behaviour based 3. Collaboration based Web personalization models include rules-based filtering, based on "if this, then that" rules processing, and collaborative filtering, which serves relevant material to customers by combining their own personal preferences with the preferences of like-minded others. Collaborative filtering works well for books, music, video, etc. However, it does not work well for a number of categories such as apparel, jewelry, cosmetics, etc. Recently, another method, "Prediction Based on Benefit", has been proposed for products with complex attributes such as apparel[1]. There are three broad methods of personalizations: 1. Implicit 2. Explicit 3. Hybrid With implicit personalization the personalization is performed by the web page (or information system) based on the different categories mentioned above. With explicit personalization, the web page (or information system) is changed by the user using the features provided by the system. Hybrid personalization combines the above two approaches to leverage the best of both worlds. Many companies offer services for web recommendation and email recommendation that are based on personalization or anonymously collected user behaviors[2]. Following the example of Amazon.com, the online retailing industry has been early adopters of 3rd party personalization tools offered by companies like PredictiveIntent, MyBuys, Barilliance, iGoDigital and Certona. Other 3rd party vendors like Choice Stream or Vignette bring personalization to content and display advertising. Web personalization is closely linked to the notion of Adaptive hypermedia (AH). The main difference is that the former would usually work on what is considered an Open Corpus Hypermedia, whilst the latter would traditionally work on Closed Corpus Hypermedia. However, recent research directions in the AH domain take both closed and open corpus into account. Thus, the two fields are closely inter-related. Personalization is also being considered for use in less overtly commercial applications to improve the user experience online [3]. Remote control manufacturer Ruwido developed an interactive IPTV platform in 2010 called Voco Media, which controls digital media in the living room using web personalization. It uses personalization as a tool that supports modern forms of TV usage, by allowing users to create different profiles for each family member, personalized menu structures and fingerprint recognition[4]. [edit] Digital media Another aspect of personalization is the increasing prevalence of open data on the Web. Many companies make their data available on the Web via APIs, web services, and open data standards[5]. Ordnance Survey Open Data This data is structured to allow it to be inter-connected and re-used by third parties[6]. Data available from a user’s personal social graph can be accessed by third-party application software to be suited to fit the personalized web page or information appliance. Current open data standards on the Web include: 1. DataPortability 2. OpenID 3. OpenSocial 4. Attention Profiling Mark-up Language (APML) [edit] Mobile Phones Over time mobile phones have seen an increased emphasis placed on user personalization. Far from the black and white screens and monophonic ringtones of the past, phones now offer interactive wallpapers and MP3 TruTones. In the UK and Asia, WeeMees have become popular. WeeMees are three-dimensional characters that are used as wallpaper and respond to the tendencies of the user. Video Graphics Array (VGA) picture quality allows people to change their background with ease without sacrificing quality. All of these services are downloaded through the provider with the goal to make the user feel connected to the phone [7]. [edit] Search engines Google is the first of the major search engines to introduce personalized results on a massive scale. Weighing a number of factors including but not limited to user history, bookmarks, community behaviour and site click-through rate and stickiness, Google is providing results that are specific to what they believe you are searching for. Currently this service is only available to those who are logged into their Google account [8][9] . Amazon.com has been the early adopter of personalization technology to recommend products to shoppers on its site, based upon their previous purchases. Amazon makes extensive use of Collaborative Filtering in its personalization technology. TV Genius has developed personalization in its television search engine[10]. [edit] Print media Main article: Mail merge In print media, ranging from magazines to promotional publications, personalization uses databases of individual recipients’ information. Not only does the written document address itself by name to the reader, but the advertising is targeted to the recipient’s demographics or interests using fields within the database, such as "first name", "last name", "company", etc. The term "personalization" should not be confused with variable data, which is a much more granular method of marketing that leverages both images and text with the medium, not just fields within a database. Although personalized children's books are created by companies who are using and leveraging all the strengths of Variable Data Printing. This allows for full image and text variability within a printed book. [edit] Promotional merchandise Promotional items industry (mugs, T-shirts, keychains, balls etc.) are regularly personalized. Personalized children’s storybooks — wherein the child becomes the protagonist, with the name and image of the child personalized — are also popular. Personalized CDs for children also exist. With the advent of digital printing, personalized calendars that start in any month, Birthday Cards, cards, e-cards, posters and Photo Book can also be obtained. [edit] Mass personalization This section's tone or style may not be appropriate for Wikipedia. Specific concerns may be found on the talk page. See Wikipedia's guide to writing better articles for suggestions. (January 2011) Mass personalization is defined as custom tailoring by a company in accordance with its end users tastes and preferences [2]. The main difference between mass customization and mass personalization is that customization is the ability for a company to give its customers an opportunity to create and choose product to certain specifications, but does have limits [11]. Behavioral targeting represents a concept that is similar to mass personalization. [edit] Advantages of personalization and mass customization Save time: Eliminate repetitive tasks; remember transactional details; recognize habits and shorten the path to engage in such habits (example: frequently called numbers on a phone should automatically go into the phone’s memory). Save money: Prevent redundant work (example: make it easier for employees and suppliers to know someone else has already solved the problem that they are currently facing); eliminate service components unnecessary to a customer; identify lower-cost solutions that meet all other specifications. Better information: Provide training; filter out information not relevant to a person; provide more specific information that is increasingly relevant to a person’s interests; increase the reliability of information; replace “average� information with information specific to that person’s environment. Address ongoing needs, challenges, or opportunities: Provide one-stop services; allow flexibility in work hours, job responsibilities, and benefits; accommodate unique personal preferences (example: allow employees to customize their office space, within certain boundaries); recognize and reward achievement with special treatment. Personalization allows a company to tailor a specific product in accordance with individual standards, tastes and preferences. For example, baseball jerseys can be customized based on size, colour, team and logo, however there are a finite number of choices for these variables to choose. To personalize a jersey, a name or number can be administered to it as well as custom fitting. The emergence of e-commerce has allowed for the personalization of clothing as well as the customization of audio CD’s and downloading of music as well as graphic design for personal websites from the comfort of one’s own home. Computer companies have been widely regarded as a market leader in made to order desktops or notebooks for high-performance and entertainment needs. Consumers are able to place orders based on product family, usage, price range, processor, and form factors. This customization ensures that each purchaser can view the merchandise available in order to make an informed decision. [edit] Disadvantages to personalization No matter how remarkable or laudable a company's efforts at personalization, there will always be some people who simply are not interested. Every firm must be prepared to recognize and instantly accommodate any of the motivating factors that would cause a person to decide he or she doesn't want any sort of personalization. From an individual's perspective, there are numerous situations or attitudes that make personalization unwelcome. Anonymity preferred. There are many reasons why people might not want to be identified, from the innocent - it's a birthday present they don't want their spouse to discover in advance on their credit card statement - to the unethical or illegal. Some people are simply private, and prefer to mind their own business and let others mind theirs. Others recognize the growing infringements on private space and choose to take the cautious route. A. Michael Froomkin, associate professor at the University of Miami School of Law, wrote, "Anonymity may be the primary tool available to citizens to combat the compilation and analysis of personal profile data, although data protection laws also may have some effect." Lack of relevance. People do not want a relationship with companies that have no relevance to them. Computer programmers have no interest in getting to know an executive recruiter who only places sales executives. Homeowners who only buy the finest products for their home will not be interested in a cut-rate furniture store. If you've never been to Arkansas, never plan to go there, and don't know anyone there, you don't want to be on the mailing list of the Arkansas Tourism Board. On the Web, companies constantly ignore this factor and ask individuals for information before demonstrating to the person's satisfaction that their services are relevant. The prime example is companies that insist people fill out a lengthy form before they can gain access to a demo or to additional information. If a company asks people for information before it has demonstrated relevance, between 30 and 50 percent-depending on which statistics you believe-will lie to prevent revealing personal information. Lack of credibility. If you don't trust a company, it becomes a relationship of last resort. Unless you have no choice, you don't want to deal with it. People don't need proof that a company deserves to be in this category. Often, a small suggestion that this might be the case is enough to justify caution. Lack of security. Good intentions aren't enough. If a company fails to protect its assets, and those of its stakeholders, then people will not be willing to share anything of value with the firm. Security is like sausage making: the more you know about it, the less likely you are to be comfortable. People have real reasons to fear that today's centralized networks are not secure, because they frequently are not. Technology firms are working to solve security problems, although most admit that security is a process, not a single technological solution. There are no quick fixes. Impossible. Sometimes, people just aren't able to take advantage of attractive offers. If a company, local government, spouse, or neighborhood forbids a person from moving forward, that's life. Likewise, if people lack the ability to accept personalization-perhaps they lack a sophisticated enough cell phone, or a fast enough Web connection-it won't happen. Infrequent contact. People will have little interest in establishing a relationship with a cab driver in a city they rarely visit, or with the company that installs their new septic system (a once-in-twenty-five-years event.) Companies get around this limitation by broadening their services to increase the frequency of contacts. Hewlett-Packard's printer division used to focus on selling printers; now the firm realizes it can make more money selling printer cartridges, as well as paper, and in the process increase the frequency of its interactions with customers. Little value placed on potential benefits. People may not recognize the value in offered personalization, such as when firms offer to customize product offers. Many people don't want to receive any such offers, period. Employees who are offered personalized training may not value it if they were unimpressed with their previous experiences with the training unit, and thus believe that even personalization won't make the time invested worthwhile. As companies move towards the personal - and the number of interactions increases - it's important to gain greater objectivity about the attractiveness of a firm's offers. Today, in the early stages of our shift towards increasingly personal business relationships, most personalization is still superficial, and way too much of it is mainly personalized marketing. No matter how targeted advertising becomes, it still won't be anything more than a means to an end, and too much of it is flat-out annoying. People tolerate occasional annoyances, but when annoyances multiply, they begin to reek of harassment. Even highly attractive offers won't make a difference to a person who doesn't value the potential benefits. Think about a new knowledge management system that theoretically delivers "better" information by filtering out "less relevant" citations. Many researchers may cringe at the thought, because they succeed by looking at raw data and thus understanding at a deeper level the background and related elements of a given situation.

jumping Return to the top

Jumping or leaping is a form of locomotion or movement in which an organism or non-living (e.g., robotic) mechanical system propels itself through the air along a ballistic trajectory. Jumping can be distinguished from running, galloping, and other gaits where the entire body is temporarily airborne by the relatively long duration of the aerial phase and high angle of initial launch. Some animals, such as the kangaroo, employ jumping (commonly called hopping in this instance) as their primary form of locomotion, while others, such as frogs, use it only as a means to escape predators. Jumping is also a key feature of various activities and sports, including the long jump, high jump, and show jumping. Contents [hide] * 1 Physics of jumping * 2 Anatomy o 2.1 Limb morphology o 2.2 Power amplification through stored energy * 3 Classification * 4 Devices and techniques for enhancing jumping height * 5 References * 6 See also [edit] Physics of jumping Jumping bottlenose dolphin All jumping involves the application of force against a substrate, which in turn generates a reactive force that propels the jumper away from the substrate. Any solid or liquid capable of producing an opposing force can serve as a substrate, including ground or water. Examples of the latter include dolphins performing traveling jumps, and Indian skitter frogs executing standing jumps from water. Jumping organisms are rarely subject to significant aerodynamic forces and, as a result, their jumps are governed by the basic physical laws of ballistic trajectories. Consequently, while a bird may jump into the air to initiate flight, no movement it performs once airborne is considered jumping, as the initial jump conditions no longer dictate its flight path. Following the moment of launch (i.e., initial loss of contact with the substrate), a jumper will traverse a parabolic path. The launch angle and initial launch velocity determine the travel distance, duration, and height of the jump. The maximum possible horizontal travel distance occurs at a launch angle of 45 degrees, but any launch angle between 35 and 55 degrees will result in ninety percent of the maximum possible distance. Muscles (or other actuators in non-living systems) do physical work, adding kinetic energy to the jumper's body over the course of a jump's propulsive phase. This results in a kinetic energy at launch that is proportional to the square of the jumper's velocity. The more work the muscles do, the greater the launch velocity and thus the greater the acceleration and the shorter the time interval of the jump's propulsive phase. Mechanical power (work per unit time) and the distance over which that power is applied (e.g., leg length) are the key determinants of jump distance and height. As a result, many jumping animals have long legs and muscles that are optimized for maximal power according to the force-velocity relationship of muscles. The maximum power output of muscles is limited, however. To circumvent this limitation, many jumping species slowly pre-stretch elastic elements, such as tendons or apodemes, to store work as strain energy. Such elastic elements can release energy at a much higher rate (higher power) than equivalent muscle mass, thus increasing launch energy to levels beyond what muscle alone is capable of. A jumper may be either stationary or moving when initiating a jump. In a jump from stationary (i.e., a standing jump), all of the work required to accelerate the body through launch is done in a single movement. In a moving jump or running jump, the jumper introduces additional vertical velocity at launch while conserving as much horizontal momentum as possible. Unlike stationary jumps, in which the jumper's kinetic energy at launch is solely due to the jump movement, moving jumps have a higher energy that results from the inclusion of the horizontal velocity preceding the jump. Consequently, jumpers are able to jump greater distances when starting from a run. [edit] Anatomy A bullfrog skeleton, showing elongate limb bones and extra joints. Red marks indicate bones substantially elongated in frogs, and joints that have become mobile. Blue indicates joints and bones that have not been modified, or are only somewhat elongated. Animals use a wide variety of anatomical adaptations for jumping. These adaptations are exclusively concerned with the launch, as any post-launch method of extending range or controlling the jump must use aerodynamic forces, and thus is considered gliding or parachuting. Aquatic species rarely display any particular specializations for jumping. Those that are good jumpers usually are primarily adapted for speed, and execute moving jumps by simply swimming to the surface at a high velocity. A few primarily aquatic species that can jump while on land, such as mud skippers, do so via a flick of the tail. [edit] Limb morphology In terrestrial animals, the primary propulsive structure is the legs, though a few species use their tails. Typical characteristics of jumping species include long legs, large leg muscles, and additional limb elements. Long legs increase the time and distance over which a jumping animal can push against the substrate, thus allowing more power and faster, farther jumps. Large leg muscles can generate greater force, resulting in improved jumping performance. In addition to elongated leg elements, many jumping animals have modified foot and ankle bones that are elongated and possess additional joints, effectively adding more segments to the limb and even more length. Frogs are an excellent example of all three trends: frog legs can be nearly twice the body length, leg muscles may account for up to twenty percent of body weight, and they have not only lengthened the foot, shin and thigh, but extended the ankle bones into another limb joint and similarly extended the hip bones and gained mobility at the sacrum for a second 'extra joint'. As a result, frogs are the undisputed champion jumpers of vertebrates, leaping over fifty body lengths, a distance of more than eight feet.[1] [edit] Power amplification through stored energy Grasshoppers are known to use elastic energy storage to increase jumping distance. As noted above, power output is a principal determinant of jump distance, but physiological constraints limit muscle power to approximately 375 Watts per kilogram of muscle.[2] To overcome this limitation, grasshoppers anchor their legs via an internal "catch mechanism" while their muscles stretch an elastic apodeme (similar to a vertebrate tendon). When the catch is released, the apodeme rapidly releases its energy. Because the apodeme releases energy more quickly than muscle, its power output exceeds that of the muscle that produced the energy. This is analogous to a human throwing an arrow by hand versus using a bow; the use of elastic storage (the bow) allows the muscles to operate closer to isometric on the force-velocity curve. This enables the muscles to do work over a longer time and thus produce more energy than they otherwise could, while the elastic element releases that work faster than the muscles can. The use of elastic energy storage has been found in jumping mammals as well as in frogs, with commensurate increases in power ranging from two to seven times that of equivalent muscle mass.[3] [edit] Classification One way to classify jumping is by the manner of foot transfer.[4] In this classification system, five basic jump forms are distinguished: * Jump - jumping from and landing on two feet * Hop - jumping from one foot and landing on the same foot * Leap - jumping from one foot and landing on the other foot * Assemble - jumping from one foot and landing on two feet * Sissonne - jumping from two feet and landing on one foot Leaping gaits, which are distinct from running gaits (see Locomotion), include cantering, galloping, and pronging.[5] [edit] Devices and techniques for enhancing jumping height The height of a jump may be increased by using a trampoline or by converting horizontal velocity into vertical velocity with the aid of a device such as a half pipe. Various exercises can be used to increase an athlete's vertical jumping height. One category of such exercises—plyometrics—employs repetition of discrete jumping-related movements to increase speed, agility, and power.

# umping Jumping or leaping is a form of locomotion or movement in which an organism or ... sports, including the long jump , high jump , and show jumping . ... 10 KB (1,477 words) - 22:57, 16 December 2010 # Show jumping Show jumping, also known as "stadium jumping," "open jumping," or "jumpers," is a member of a family of English riding equestrian events ... 29 KB (4,698 words) - 23:22, 5 January 2011 # Ski jumping Ski jumping is a sport in which skiers go down a take-off ramp, jump and attempt to land as far as possible down the hill below. ... 29 KB (3,745 words) - 08:54, 4 January 2011 # Jumping spider The jumping spider family (Salticidae) contains more than 500 described genera and about 5,000 described species making it the largest ... 15 KB (1,920 words) - 07:30, 22 December 2010 # BASE jumping BASE jumping, also sometimes written as B.A.S.E jumping, is an activity that employs an initially packed parachute to jump from fixed ... 25 KB (3,946 words) - 20:59, 5 January 2011 # Professional wrestling attacks (section Jumping high kick) It is executed from a running or jumping position, using momentum and weight to impact the opponent, and most variations can seamlessly ... 46 KB (7,243 words) - 12:00, 3 January 2011 # Equestrian at the Summer Olympics (redirect from Jumping at the Summer Olympics) The current Olympic equestrian disciplines are Dressage , Eventing , and Jumping . ... Show jumping in the Olympic Games: Show jumping ... 40 KB (5,923 words) - 16:04, 2 December 2010 # Jumping (horse) Jumping plays a major role in many equestrian sports , such as show jumping , fox hunting , steeplechasing , and eventing . of jumping, the ... 10 KB (1,510 words) - 20:36, 15 April 2010 # DDT (professional wrestling) (section Jumping DDT) Also known as a Samurai Driver, this DDT sees a wrestler place his/her head between the thighs of an opponent before jumping up while ... 17 KB (2,477 words) - 08:37, 3 January 2011 # Neckbreaker A slight, but common, variation of this, also known as a jumping neckbreaker, sees the attacking wrestler jump up, becoming level with the ... 12 KB (1,827 words) - 23:42, 1 January 2011 # Equestrian at the 1920 Summer Olympics – Individual jumping The individual jumping event was part of the equestrian programme at the 1920 Summer Olympics . Results ! : Place | Equestrian | Score | ... 4 KB (337 words) - 10:52, 26 November 2009 # Leg drop wrestling in which an attacking wrestler will jump and land his leg across a fallen ... An attacking wrestler would perform a jumping forward ... 5 KB (807 words) - 00:55, 6 December 2010 # Equestrian at the 1924 Summer Olympics – Individual jumping The individual jumping was one of five equestrianism events on the Equestrian at the 1924 Summer Olympics programme. The competition was ... 6 KB (533 words) - 17:55, 22 December 2009 # Jumping (EP) Jumping (Hangul: ko | �핑) is the fourth mini-album by South Korean girl group , Kara . "Jumping ", which is also a Korean version of the ... 4 KB (488 words) - 08:16, 28 December 2010 # Suicide methods (section Jumping from height) Jumping from height is the act of jumping from high altitudes, for example, from a window (self-defenestration or auto-defenestration), ... 47 KB (6,941 words) - 19:58, 2 January 2011 # Jump blues Jump blues is an up-tempo blues usually played by small groups and featuring horn s. It was very popular in the 1940s. interest in jump ... 7 KB (931 words) - 05:30, 29 December 2010 # Defenestration (redirect from Jumping out of windows) In Hong Kong , jumping is the most common method (from any location) of committing suicide, accounting for 52.1% of all reported suicide ... 13 KB (1,849 words) - 18:52, 3 January 2011 # Cylindropuntia fulgida (redirect from Jumping Cholla) Cylindropuntia fulgida, the Jumping cholla , also known as the hanging chain ... The "jumping cholla" name comes from the ease with which the ... 5 KB (799 words) - 19:42, 7 October 2010 # Equestrian at the 2007 Pan American Games (section Show Jumping Results) The Equestrian events included three disciplines: dressage , eventing , and show jumping , and were held at the Deodoro Military Club. ... 11 KB (1,284 words) - 12:19, 16 August 2010 # Equestrian at the 1900 Summer Olympics – Jumping The jumping event at the 1900 Summer Olympics Equestrian competition was similar to the modern event. including a double jump and a triple ... 3 KB (373 words) - 08:58, 30 May 2010

jumping - 3 dictionary results Air Alert - Jump Higher 8"-14" higher. Guaranteed or free. Game's best. Gift w/ order. $27.95. www.AirAlert.com Skydive Miami Serving Miami & Ft. Lauderdale -Breathtaking view of South Florida www.skydivemiami.com Jumping Definition Find Definitions For Any Word.Get Your Free Dictionary.com Toolbar. Dictionary.com jump    /dʒʌmp/ Show Spelled[juhmp] Show IPA –verb (used without object) 1. to spring clear of the ground or other support by a sudden muscular effort; leap: to jump into the air; to jump out a window. 2. to rise suddenly or quickly: He jumped from his seat when she entered. 3. to move or jerk suddenly, as from surprise or shock: He jumped when the firecracker exploded. 4. to obey quickly and energetically; hustle: The waiter was told to jump when the captain signaled. 5. Informal . to be full of activity; bustle: The whole town is jumping with excitement. 6. to start a campaign, program, military attack, etc.; launch an activity, esp. of major proportions (usually fol. by off ): The march jumped off early in the morning. 7. Checkers . to move from one side of an opponent's piece to a vacant square on the opposite side, thus capturing the opponent's piece. 8. to rise suddenly in amount, price, etc.: Costs jumped again this quarter. 9. to pass abruptly, ignoring intervening steps or deliberation: to jump to a conclusion. 10. to change abruptly: The traffic light jumped from green to red. 11. to move or change suddenly, haphazardly, aimlessly, or after a short period: He jumped from job to job. 12. to pass or go aimlessly: He jumped from one thing to another without being able to concentrate on anything. 13. to omit letters, numbers, etc.; skip: This typewriter jumps and needs repairing. 14. to parachute from an airplane. 15. to take eagerly; seize (often fol. by at ): He jumped at the offer of a free trip. 16. to enter into something with vigor (usually fol. by in or into ): She jumped into the discussion right away. 17. to advance rapidly from one level to another, esp. in rank; pass through or skip intermediate stages in a forward or upward progression: He jumped from clerk to general manager in a year. 18. Movies . (of a shot or frame) to fail to line up properly with the preceding or following frames because of a mechanical fault in the camera or projector. 19. Bridge . to make a jump bid: She jumped from three clubs to four spades. 20. Journalism . (of newspaper copy) to continue on a subsequent page, following intervening copy ( opposed to turn). –verb (used with object) 21. to leap or spring over: to jump a narrow stream. 22. to cause to leap: She jumped the horse over the fence. 23. to skip or pass over; bypass: to jump the third grade in school. 24. to elevate or advance, esp. in rank, by causing to skip or pass rapidly through intermediate stages: The boss jumped his son from mail clerk to plant manager. 25. to move past or start before (a signal); anticipate: One car jumped the red light and collided with a truck. 26. to increase sharply: The store jumped its prices. 27. Checkers . to capture (an opponent's piece) by leaping over. 28. to attack or pounce upon without warning, as from ambush: The thugs jumped him in a dark alley. 29. Bridge . to raise (the bid) by more than necessary to reach the next bidding level, esp. as a signal to one's partner. 30. Informal . a. to abscond from; leave: The robbers jumped town. b. to flee or escape from. 31. to seize or occupy illegally or forcibly (a mining claim or the like), as on the ground of some flaw in the holder's title. 32. (of trains, trolleys, etc.) to spring off or leave (the track). 33. to get on board (a train, bus, etc.) quickly or with little planning or preparation for the trip: He jumped a plane for Chicago. 34. Journalism . to continue (a story) from one page to another over intervening copy. 35. Metalworking . to thicken (a bar or the like) by striking the end; upset (often fol. by up ). 36. Slang: Vulgar . to engage in an act of coitus with. 37. to connect (a dead battery) to a live battery by attaching booster cables between the respective terminals. –noun 38. an act or instance of jumping; leap. 39. a space, obstacle, apparatus, or the like, cleared or to be cleared in a leap. 40. a short or hurried journey. 41. a descent by parachute from an airplane. 42. a sudden rise in amount, price, etc.: a considerable jump in the stock market. 43. a sudden upward or other movement of an inanimate object. 44. an abrupt transition from one point or thing to another, with omission of what intervenes: The speaker made an unexplained jump in topic. 45. a move or one of a series of moves: The gangster stayed one jump ahead of the police. 46. Sports . any of several contests that feature a leap or jump. Compare broad jump, high jump. 47. Movies . a break in the continuity of action due to a failure to match the action of one frame with the following one of the same scene. 48. a sudden start as from nervous excitement: He gave a jump when the firecracker went off. 49. Checkers . the act of taking an opponent's piece by leaping over it to an unoccupied square. 50. the jumps, Informal . restlessness; nervousness; anxiety. 51. Also called breakover. Journalism . the part of a story continued on another page. 52. Mathematics . the difference in limit values at a jump discontinuity of a given function. 53. Automotive . jump-start ( def. 1 ) . –adjective 54. Jazz . a. of, pertaining to, or characteristic of swing. b. of, pertaining to, or characteristic of jazz; played at a bright tempo. –adverb 55. Obsolete . exactly; precisely. —Verb phrase 56. jump on, to blame or rebuke; reprimand: He'll jump on anyone who contradicts him. —Idioms 57. get / havethe jump on, to get or have a head start or an initial advantage over: They got the jump on us in selling the item, but we finally caught up. 58. jump aboard / on board, to join a group, activity, etc., esp. one that has been operating or functioning for some time: After some hesitation, he jumped aboard and contributed heavily to the campaign. 59. jump all over someone, to reprimand; criticize: You don't have to jump all over me just because I'm a little late. 60. jump bail. bail1 ( def. 8 ) . 61. jump down someone's throat. throat ( def. 12 ) . 62. jump in / intowith both feet, to join or enter into exuberantly, eagerly, hastily, etc. 63. jump ship. ship ( def. 15 ) . 64. jump the gun. gun1 ( def. 14 ) . 65. on the jump, in a hurry; running about: Lively youngsters keep their parents on the jump. Use jumping in a Sentence See images of jumping Search jumping on the Web Origin: 1505–15; cf. Dan gumpe to jolt, gimpe to move up and down, Sw gumpa, LG gumpen to jump —Related forms jump·a·ble, adjective jump·ing·ly, adverb outjump, verb (used with object) un·jump·a·ble, adjective —Can be confused:  hop, jump, skip (see synonym note at this entry ; see synonym note at skip1 ). —Synonyms 1. Jump, leap, vault imply propelling oneself by a muscular effort, either into the air or from one position or place to another. Jump and leap are often used interchangeably, but jump indicates more particularly the springing movement of the feet in leaving the ground or support: to jump up and down. Leap (which formerly also meant to run) indicates the passage, by a springing movement of the legs, from one point or position to another: to leap across a brook. Vault implies leaping, esp. with the aid of the hands or some instrument, over or upon something: to vault ( over ) a fence. Dictionary.com Unabridged Based on the Random House Dictionary, © Random House, Inc. 2011. Cite This Source | Link To jumping Explore the Visual Thesaurus » Related Words for : jumping jump View more related words » Word Origin & History jump 1530, perhaps onomatopoeic (cf. bump ); another theory derives it from words in Gallo-Romance dialects of southwestern France (cf. jumba "to rock, to balance, swing," yumpa "to rock"), picked up during English occupation in Hundred Years War. Superseded native leap, bound, and spring in most senses. Meaning "to attack" is from 1789; that of "to do the sex act with" is from 1638. The noun is attested from 1552. Meaning "jazz music with a strong beat" first recorded 1937, in Count Basie's "One O'Clock Jump." To jump to a conclusion is from 1704. Jumpy "nervous" is from 1879. Jump suit "one-piece coverall modeled on those worn by paratroopers and skydivers" is from 1948. Jumping-rope is from 1805. Jump in a lake "go away and stop being a pest" attested from 1912. Online Etymology Dictionary, © 2010 Douglas Harper Cite This Source Slang Dictionary jump (street) definition 1. n. the beginning; the start (of something). (Prisons and streets.) : Way back at jump street, I spotted you as a troublemaker. Dictionary of American Slang and Colloquial Expressions by Richard A. Spears.Fourth Edition

marquee Return to the top

* A marquee is a large tent used as a temporary building. They have long been used for circus or other performances, fairs, banquets, large weddings or, more recently corporate entertainment events. Traditionally made of canvas, modern "party tents" are more likely to use PE (polythene) or, for higher quality, PVC. 'DIY' marquees are available up to 20 feet (6m) wide. 30 to 150 feet (9m to 45m) widths are very expensive and require specialized equipment and skill to erect, so they must usually be rented. Many corporations own large (9m to 45m wide) marquee tents but have them installed and maintained by qualified professionals. Party tents are held down with tensioned ratchets and/or stakes. Sizes range from 10 x 10 feet (3m x 3m) to 150 x 400 feet (45m x 120m). Marquees / party tents are dramatic and very strong. * A pole marquee consists of canvas and more recently PVC, under tension by means of centre poles, side poles and guy ropes which are attached to ground stakes hammered into soft surfaces only such as a lawn or field. Hand made of white cotton canvas, traditional poled marquees are more attractive but much less practical and versatile than aluminium frame marquees. The modern PVC traditional pole marquee was introduced due to the material being easier to clean than woven canvas and giving them a longer hire life span. * A tension tent, flex tent or stretch tent is a newer variation of the pole marquee. The general design is similar to the pole marquee. However, it usually has fewer poles, and the integrity of the structure is maintained by the tension of the fabric. It also is very similar to a tensile structure It is often used for outdoor weddings, parties and other events. It is generally more economical with poles than tents supported by an aluminum frame. It has since been adapted and updated in various other tent types including the High Peak Frame Tent and Freeform / Stretch / Flex Tent styles developed in South Africa * Freeform / Stretch / Flex Tents have developed since 2000 driven predominantly by companies in South Africa and in Australia. The composition of the fabric differs slightly between those from South Africa and those in Australia. Stretch Tent Fabrics have been produced using Nylon and Polyester. Since 2007 Stretch Tents have been introduced into Europe by some of the South African companies such as Intent. Stretch Tents utilize aluminum, wooden and bamboo poles capped by molded polypropylene or rubber domes that push through the stretched fabric, creating tension between the ground and the fabric. The fabric can be sculpted into various organic and curvaceous forms to provide shade and rain cover for events. The tensioned fabric must be made rigid and the tent form allow water run-off and resistance to wind load before erection is complete.[5] * Aluminium frame marquees - Aluminium frame tents have no centre poles or guy ropes, can be erected on any surface and adjacent to buildings or annexe tents. Much more stable and can span a much wider area over pools, flower beds or trees. Typical 20'x20' High Peak Frame Tent set up at Events Party & Tent Rentals for Demonstration * A newer category of the Marquee/Party tents is the High Peak Frame Tents (known by several brand names like "frame & cable", "vista", "pinnacle", etc.). These tents have the advantage of the pole tents with the high top, ease of installation, cleaner look, and fewer parts. They also have the advantage of the Frame Tents as they do not have support pole(s) on the inside of the tent that touches the ground. The high top look is accomplished by using a "floating pole", which is a pole that sits on cables that run across the tent interior from the top of the sides. Most tent manufactures are now making these tents and they come in a variety of sizes and shapes that can be joined together to meet the needs of unique space requirements. * Marquee tents typically have interchangeable parts, which allow for a rental company to easily expand to larger sizes. Tents can be ordered in a variety of colours. However, white is by far the most popular colour. Skylights can also be built into the fabric, which allow a greater amount of light to enter and is useful if walls are being used. Walls can also be ordered with clear vinyl windows in them. * Shamiana is a popular Indian ethnic tent shelter, which is commonly used for outdoor parties, marriages, restaurants etc. Its side walls are detachable. The external fabric can be multicolored or can hold exquisite designs. The history of Shamiana, dates back to the Mughal era. As per Government of India service tax rules under Finance Act 1997, the definition of Shamiana is given under the clause (77A) of section 65, that is: "pandal or shamiana means a place specially prepared or arranged for organizing an official, social or business function". Khan Shatryry ("Royal Marquee") in Astana, Kazakhstan is the highest tensile structure in the World * "Bail Ring Tents" are usually tents that are 100 to 150 feet (30m x 45m) wide and expandable to any length. They can be made from either vinyl or canvas. The purpose of the bail ring style is to raise an enormous amount of material "the tent" off the ground without using heavy machinery. Initially, the center poles are raised and guyed out to stakes after which the tent is spread out and connected to the bail ring using shackles. Once the outside of the tent is raised a crew of men can go under the tent and start raising the bail ring up the center pole using a system of pulleys. This style of tent is not as popular as it was in the past due to the advancement of forklifts and skidsteers. There was a time when even smaller tents 40 to 100 feet (12m to 30m) were often raised and set using a bail ring. * The four Major golf tournaments have tents set up. They are usually 40×40 feet (12m×12m). * Tents or marquees are often hired from specialist companies. * A "Rubb Hall" is a large tent used primarily as emergency warehousing. * A circus tent usually has one or more oval or circular arenas surrounded by tiered seating which might accommodate thousands of people. Nowadays such large tents are made of some artificial fibre (polyester or vinyl) and are often erected with the help of cranes. In earlier times it was common for the circus elephants to be used as a source of power for pulling ropes to haul the canvas into position

magicians Return to the top

A magician, mage, sorcerer, sorceress, wizard, warlock, witch, enchanter, enchantress illusionist or a person known under one of many other possible terms in fiction is someone who uses or practices magic that derives from supernatural or occult sources.[2] Magicians are common figures in works of fantasy, such as fantasy literature and role-playing games; they draw on a history of such people in mythology, legends, and folklore (see Magician (paranormal)). Although occasional practitioners of sleight-of-hand appear in modern fantasy, they are usually simulating the magic that others perform—or sometimes concealing their actual magic. Fantasy magicians have powers arising from their study, possibly based on innate talent, rather than having their magical abilities occur entirely spontaneously, or be granted by another source. (Other fantasy characters can use magic or be magical, but they have generally not acquired their powers by study.) Still, most fantasy wizards are depicted as having a special gift which sets them apart from the vast majority of characters in fantasy worlds who are unable to learn magic. Magicians, sorcerers, wizards, warlocks and practitioners of magic by other titles have appeared in myths, folktales and literature throughout recorded history, and fantasy draws on this background. They commonly appear in fantasy as mentors and villains, as they did in older works, and more recently as heroes themselves. Although they are often portrayed as wielding great powers, their role in shaping the fantasy world they inhabit varies; much of fantasy literature writes of medieval worlds with wizards in a fairly limited role as guardians or advisers. Fantasy Fantasy media * Fantastic art * Fantasy anime * Fantasy art * Fantasy artists * Fantasy authors * Fantasy comics * Fantasy fiction magazine * Fantasy films * Fantasy literature * Fantasy television * Fantasy webcomics Genre studies * History of fantasy o Sources of fantasy * Fantastic * Fantastique * Fantasy tropes and conventions o Quests o Magic items * Fantasy races * Fantasy worlds * Legendary creatures * Lovecraftianism * Magician * Magic * Religious themes * Tolkienology Categories * Fantasy * Fantasy awards * Fantasy subgenres * Fantasy television * Fantasy tropes This box: view · talk · edit Contents [hide] * 1 Character function o 1.1 Appearance o 1.2 Limits * 2 Names and terminology o 2.1 Gender-based titles o 2.2 Types of magic * 3 Traits of magicians * 4 Education * 5 Magical materials * 6 Use of magic * 7 Wizards, magicians, and others specific to a work * 8 See also * 9 Notes and references * 10 Bibliography [edit] Character function In medieval chivalric romance, the wizard often appears as a wise old man and acts as a mentor, with Merlin from the Matter of Britain representing a prime example.[3] Other witches and magicians can appear as villains, as hostile to the hero as ogres and other monsters.[4] Both these roles were taken up into fantasy. Wizards such as Gandalf in The Lord of the Rings and Albus Dumbledore from Harry Potter featured as mentors, and Merlin remains prominent as both an educative force and mentor or guide in modern works of Arthuriana.[5] Evil sorcerers, acting as villains, were so crucial to pulp fantasy that the genre in which they appeared was dubbed sword and sorcery.[6] Ursula K. Le Guin, considering the work that was to become A Wizard of Earthsea, noted that wizards were usually elderly or ageless, which she considered proper, but her own work stemmed from the question of how wizards learned their art, and thereby introduced to modern fantasy a new role: the wizard as the hero of the quest.[7] This theme has been further developed in modern fantasy, often leading to wizards as heroes on their own quests, alongside works where the wizard appears as a mentor figure, or a villain.[8] A work with a wizard hero may give him a wizard mentor as well, as in Earthsea.[5] Wizards can act the part of the absent-minded professor, being foolish, prone to misconjuring, and generally less than dangerous; they can also be terrible forces, capable of great magics that work good or evil.[9] Even comic wizards are often capable of great feats, such as those of Miracle Max in The Princess Bride; although a washed-up wizard fired by the villain, he saves the mostly dead hero.[10] (Their place in world-building revolves about the use of magic in a given setting.) Wizards are also known to be some of the only mortal beings who know the secrets of how magnets function. [edit] Appearance Illustration by Arthur Rackham: W�den visiting Mime The appearance of wizards in fantasy art, and description in literature, is uniform to a great extent, from the appearance of Merlin in Arthurian and Arthurian-related texts to those of Gandalf in The Lord of the Rings and of Albus Dumbledore in the Harry Potter series. The association with age means that wizards, both men and women, are often depicted as old, white-haired, and (for men) with long white beards. It predates the fantasy genre, being derived from the traditional image of wizards, such as Merlin.[11] Some theorize the look of the wizard is modeled after the Germanic god Woden or Odin as he was described in his wanderer guise as being an old man with a long gray beard, baggy robes, a wide-brimmed hat and walking with a staff and he is the main influence for Tolkien's Gandalf.[12] Women, especially those termed "enchantresses" are the more likely to appear young, though that is often the effect of magic.[13] White-haired and -bearded wizard with robes and hat. Their clothing is often typical as well. Wizards commonly wear robes or cloaks and pointed hats. These are often brightly colored and spangled with stars and moons, astrological symbols, or with magical sigils. They may also be of gold.[14] The coloring may have significance within the wizards' fantasy worlds; in The Lord of the Rings, the wizards have colors assigned to them, indicative of rank. When Gandalf the Grey becomes Gandalf the White, it is a major ascension of status; whereas in the Dragonlance Dungeons and Dragons setting, the wizards show their moral alignment by their robes. When wizards and witches are distinct groups, witches may dress in the same clothing but in black. Terry Pratchett described this common attire as a way of establishing to those they meet that the person is capable of practicing magic.[15] A notable variant of the generic wizard archetype is that of the Wizard in the Conan the Barbarian film, whose clothes are heavily based on the sea, as he lives there. Of late, in England, the dress of wizards has varied; numerous younger wizards in various stories (most popularly, Harry Potter) seem to favour wearing modern clothes.[citation needed] Some wizards merely wear whatever the normal populace wear.[citation needed] Wizards may accessorize their wardrobe with magical props, such as crystal balls, wands, staves, books, potions, scrolls or tinkling bells, while often rounding out their appearance with ever-present animal companions, which may act as familiars. [edit] Limits In any given fantasy magical system, a person must have limits to his magical abilities, or the story has no conflict - problems facing the magician may be too easily solved via arbitrary magic.[16] One of the most common techniques is that the person has only a limited amount of magical ability. In The Magic Goes Away, Larry Niven made it a factor of environment: once the mana is exhausted in an area, no one can use magic.[17] A more common use is that a person can only cast so many spells in a day. This is the most common use in role-playing games, where the rules rigorously define them.[18] Magic can also require various sacrifices or the use of certain materials. Blood or life can be required, and even if the magician has no scruples, obtaining the material may be difficult.[19] Harmless substances can also limit the magician if they are rare, such as gemstones. Many fictional magic-users must speak spells aloud or gesture with their hands in order to cast a spell. The need for learning may also limit what spells a wizard knows, and can cast. When magic is learned from rare and exotic books, the wizard's ability can be limited, temporarily, by his access to these books. In Earthsea, the changing of names weakens wizards as they travel; they must learn the true names of things in their new location to be powerful again.[20] Magic may also be limited, not so much inherently, but by its danger. If a powerful spell can cause equally grave harm if miscast, wizards are likely to be wary of using it.[21] Also, in the Inheritance cycle, performing magic requires the same amount of energy from the caster as performing the task normally, without using magic. One notable example of limits of magic occurs in the Harry Potter series, bringing the dead to life was not possible. Also, magical knowledge came from studying and practice. [edit] Names and terminology People who work magic are called by many names in works of fantasy, and the terminology differs widely from one fantasy world to another. While derived from real world vocabulary, "wizard", "witch", "warlock", "enchanter/enchantress", "sorcerer/sorceress", "magician", "mage", or "magus" have within a work of fantasy the meaning the writer invests in them.[22] The term archmage, with "arch" (originating in Greek) indicating "preeminent", may be used to indicate a powerful magician, or a leader of magicians.[23] "The Love Potion" by Evelyn de Morgan. When a writer uses more than one term for reasons other than sex-based titles, except in the rarest of cases, it is to sharply distinguish between two types of magic. The precise nature of what the distinction is differs from writer to writer, and the usage can vary between works. In the Enchanted Forest Chronicles, Patricia Wrede depicts wizards who use magic based on their staves, and magicians who practice many kinds of magic, including the wizards'; in the Regency fantasies she and Caroline Stevermer depict magicians as identical to wizards except for being inferior in skill and training. Within a given work, such distinctions can be important, as the writer defines them. Steve Pemberton's The Times & Life of Lucifer Jones describes the distinction thus: "The difference between a wizard and a sorcerer is comparable to that between, say, a lion and a tiger, but wizards are acutely status-conscious, and to them, it's more like the difference between a lion and a dead kitten." In role-playing games, the types of practitioners of magic are far more clearly delineated, and named, in order that players and game masters may know the rules by which they are played.[18] In the original edition of Dungeons and Dragons, Gary Gygax and Dave Arneson invented the term "magic-user" as a generic term for a practitioner of magic (in order to avoid cultural connotations of terms such as "wizard" or "warlock"); this lasted until the second edition of Advanced Dungeons and Dragons, where it was replaced with "mage" (later to become "wizard"). The exact rules vary from game to game. In Dungeons and Dragons, a wizard or mage is a character class, distinguished by their ability to cast certain kinds of magic and their weak combat skills; subclasses are distinguished by their strength in some areas of magic and their weaknesses in others.[24] Sorcerers are distinguished from wizards as having an innate gift with magic, as well as possessing blood of a mystical or magical origin.[25] In GURPS, magic is a skill that can be combined with others, such as combat, though in most campaigns, the ability "magery" is required to cast spells.[26] Some names, distinctions, or aspects may have more of a negative connotation, than others, depending on the setting and the context. (See also Magic and Magic and religion, for some examples.) [edit] Gender-based titles The term "wizard" is more often applied to a male magic-user, as in Ursula K. Le Guin's Earthsea, just as a "witch" is more often female, as in Andre Norton's Witch World. In Witch World, a man who, anomalously, showed the same abilities as the witches was termed a warlock. The term "warlock" is sometimes used to indicate a male witch in fiction. However, either term may be used in a unisex manner, in which case there will be members of both sexes bearing that title. If both terms are used in the same setting, this can indicate a gender-based title for practicers of identical magic, such as in Harry Potter, or it can indicate that the two sexes practice different types of magic, as in Discworld.[23] While "enchantress" is the feminine of "enchanter", "sorceress" may be the feminine equivalent , not only of "sorcerer" but of "magician", which term has no precise feminine equivalent. Piers Anthony, in the comedic Xanth series, describes "sorceress" as "sexist for magician." [edit] Types of magic While the terms are used loosely, some patterns of naming are more common than others. Enchanters often practice a type of magic that produces no physical effects on objects or people, but rather deceives the observer or target, creating illusions. Enchantresses, in particular, practice this form of magic, often to seduce.[13] For instance, the Lady of the Green Kirtle in C.S. Lewis's The Silver Chair has enchanted Prince Rilian into forgetting his father and Narnia; when that enchantment is broken, she attempts further enchantments, with a sweet-smelling smoke and a thrumming musical instrument, to baffle him and his rescuers into forgetting them again.[27] Sorcerer is more frequently used when the magician in question is evil. This may derive from its use in sword and sorcery, where the hero would be the sword-wielder, leaving the sorcery for his opponent.[28] Witch also carries evil connotations. Indeed, L. Frank Baum, having named Glinda the "Good Witch of the South" in The Wonderful Wizard of Oz, merely titled her "Glinda the Good" in The Marvelous Land of Oz and referred to her there and in all books after as a sorceress rather than a witch, apparently to avoid the term that was more regarded as evil.[29] Hedge wizard or hedge witch is a widely used contemptuous term for a magician whose magic is unable to win him enough of a living to keep him from poverty or even vagrancy. Herb witch is less contemptuous, and generally indicates skill with plants (whether magically making them grow or using them magically), but generally also indicates a low level of education, and possibly skill. Such characters are often taught informally, by another hedge wizard, rather than receive a formal apprenticeship or education at a school.[30] Terms derived from more specific magics, such as voodoo, alchemy, or necromancy, generally remain closer to their real-world inspirations. Fantasy necromancers often work magic that has something to do with death, although the exact connections vary widely from work to work. In certain Asian fantasies, the practice of wuxia is used to achieve super-human feats, as in Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon.[31] Such martial artists attain these abilities through practice as much as, if not more than, studying to gain knowledge, making them in some respects like magicians, and in others not. [edit] Traits of magicians A common motif in fictional magic is that the ability to use it is innate and often rare.[16] In J. R. R. Tolkien's Middle-earth, it was limited to non-humans (wizards were actually angels sent from the gods to assist the human races) — even Aragorn, whose hands heal, has some elven blood — but in many writers' works, it is reserved for a select group of humans, as in J. K. Rowling's Harry Potter books, Katherine Kurtz's Deryni novels, or Randall Garrett's Lord Darcy universe. This is often a secretive or persecuted group. In these settings, non-magician characters, no matter how learned, cannot actually cast spells. In such instances, magic could be inherited, or perhaps it is a random ability appearing in some children, or the result of some other unique effect or situation. Inherited powers may be a simple genetic trait—for Katherine Kurtz's Deryni, a sex-linked trait—or appear apparently at random in lines that have the blood, as in Patricia A. McKillip's The Riddle Master Trilogy, where the shapeshifting Earthmasters attempt to get their blood into royal houses, but fail because although one succeeds in getting the king's wife pregnant, the child's descendants rarely have the powers. In worlds where Alchemy exists as a form of working magic, Alchemists are more likely than most magicians to have their powers be the result of study. For them, and most other practitioners of magic that is not innate, the study is long and hard. This can produce a lack of magicians even in worlds where anyone could in theory learn the art. Magical practitioners on the Disc (of the Discworld series) are rare, and often innate (with exceptions - the eighth son of an eighth son must become a wizard, even if the son is a daughter), and do require some form of training (again, with exceptions - see Sourcery). Also, magical practitioners on the Disc treat the use of magic not unlike the use of nuclear weaponry; it is acceptable for people to know that you possess such powers, but everyone will be in trouble if it is utilised. In David Eddings' Elenium and Tamuli series, spells must be performed in the language of the Styric people. The Styrics are highly secretive and distrustful of outsiders, and only a few non-Styrics, such as the Church Knights, are permitted to be trained in magic. Theoretically, any person who knew the spell, correctly pronounced the Styric language and performed the gestures correctly could work magic (as demonstrated by Stragen in The Hidden City) so it is not exclusive by being an innate ability but rather a cultural phenomenon. However, most people in the worlds of Eosia and Daresia cannot speak the Styric language. [edit] Education "The Alchemist" by William Fettes Douglas: studying for arcane knowledge. A common trait of magicians is that, no matter how spontaneously their abilities manifest, they must learn to use them. Occasionally these terms are used for people with innate abilities, but the typical magician is surrounded by books in his tower owing to his studies. Fictionally, it provides a way for the writer to ensure that his wizard characters can not do everything, thus eliminating conflict from the story.[20] When the magician is not the main character, this may not be visible, but magician protagonists including Ursula K. Le Guin's Ged in A Wizard of Earthsea and Harry Potter have gone to wizardry schools. Others have taken on the roles of apprentices, such as Haku in the movie Spirited Away. In the movie Willow, Willow receives a magical wand but has great difficulty learning to use it; only with the tutoring of Fin Raziel is he able to master magic. Harry Potter, like many young wizards in his universe, accidentally casts spells before he is taught to do so properly.[32] Another means of learning can be books; weighty, ancient tomes, often called grimoires, which may have magical properties of their own.[33] Conan the Barbarian's sorcerer foes often gained powers from such books, whose strangeness was often underscored by their strange bindings. In worlds where wizardry is not an innate trait, the scarcity of these strange books may be a factor; in Poul Anderson's A Midsummer Tempest, Prince Rupert seeks out the books of the magician Prospero to learn magic. The same occurs in the Dungeons and Dragons-based novel series Dragonlance Chronicles, wherein Raistlin Majere seeks out the books of the sorcerer Fistandantilus. Some Wizards, even after training, continue to learn new and/or invent spells and items/beings/objects or rediscover old ones that were lost to time, such as in the case of Marvel Comics' Dr. Strange, who continued to learn about magic in the Marvel Universe even after being named Sorcerer Supreme. He often encountered creatures that hadn't been seen in the world for centuries or longer. Likewise, Dr. Doom, who would combine magic with science, also continued to pursue magical knowledge long after becoming an accomplished master of the magical arts. Fred and George Weasley, of the Harry Potter universe, were notorious pranksters, but also had the capability of inventing new items based on the education they received during their tenure in Hogwarts, with so much success that by the time of Harry Potter and the Half-Blood Prince they have created a line of defensive items that was being bought in bulk by the Ministry of Magic, foremost among other clients. It may be impossible, in a given work, to determine whether a given practice of magic is innate, because the length of time needed for the study, the scarcity of the books or teachers, or the preciousness of the materials required mean that most characters are necessarily excluded. In some fictional worlds, such as David Eddings' The Belgariad, magic is inherently dangerous, and many of those who develop the talent for magic destroy themselves in learning how to use it, thus limiting their numbers even further. [edit] Magical materials "The Crystal Ball" by John William Waterhouse: using material for magical purposes; besides the crystal, a book and a wand. Historically, many magicians have required rare and precious materials for their spells. Crystal balls, rare herbs (often picked by prescribed rituals), and chemicals such as mercury are common. This is less common in fantasy. Many magicians require no material at all;[34] those that do may require only simple and easily obtained materials. Role-playing games are more likely to require such material for at least some spells, to prevent characters from casting them too easily. One factor in this development has been that wizards in fantasy more frequently go on quests; the wizard who is merely consulted in his tower may be surrounded by useful equipment and substances, even in a fantasy work, but the questing wizard must carry what he needs. Wizards who remain in one place, such as those a hero consults, often own many magical items. One who lives in a cottage may have it filled with drying herbs for their magical properties, fantasy herbs being particularly noted for their healing powers;[35] richer ones may own more valuable materials, such as crystal balls for scrying purposes.[36] Wands and staves are a common piece of property, long used in tales involving wizards.[37] The first magical wand featured in the Odyssey: that of Circe, who used it to transform Odysseus's men into animals. Italian fairy tales put them into the hands of the powerful fairies by the late Middle Ages.[38] These were transmitted to modern fantasy. Gandalf refused to surrender his staff in The Lord of the Rings, and breaking Saruman's staff broke his power. Magical wands are used from Andre Norton's Witch World to Harry Potter. One element of this is the need to limit a wizard, so that opposition to him (necessary for a story) is feasible; if the wizard loses his staff or wand (or other magic item on which he is dependent), he is weakened if not magically helpless.[20] In the Harry Potter setting, a wizard can only perform weaker magic without a wand and only a few can control their wandless magic.[39] Wands can come in many shapes and sizes. They can be made of wood, plastic (not recommended), metal, or other types of materials. Generally a wizard used a wand that he felt he was most comfortable with, and one that could become an extension of himself.[40] One of the main functions of the magic wand for a wizard or witch is to channel magic energy. [edit] Use of magic Larry Niven once urged, in a twist on Clarke's third law, that "any sufficiently advanced magic is indistinguishable from technology", and many other writers have observed that functional magic could replace technology in many situations. Nevertheless, many magicians live in pseudo-medieval setting in which their magic is not put to practical use in society; they may serve as mentors (especially if they are wise old men), or act as quest companions, or even go on a quest themselves,[23] but their magic does not build roads or buildings, or provide immunizations, or construct indoor plumbing or printing presses, or any of the other functions served by machinery; their worlds remain at a medieval level of technology.[41] In many, perhaps most, high fantasy works, this is treated as an intrinsic feature of the world, requiring no explanation. Sometimes this is justified by the use of magic bringing about worse things than it can alleviate, and the need of wizards to learn restraint.[42] In Barbara Hambley's Windrose Chronicles, the wizards are precisely pledged not to interfere because of the terrible damage they can do. In Terry Pratchett's Discworld, the importance of wizards is that they actively do not do magic, because when wizards have access to lots of "thaumaturgic energy" they develop many psychotic attributes, and would eventually destroy the world. This may be direct effect, or the danger of a miscast spell wreaking terrible harm.[21] Also, sometimes they are in hiding, with normal people having no idea about them, because the wizards and witches feel that if they revealed themselves, regular people would persecute them, a justified fear, or they would want them to fix all of their problems instead of doing it themselves. An example of this is when Hagrid explains the latter to Harry in Philosopher's Stone. [43] In other works, developing magic is difficult. In Rick Cook's Wizardry series, the extreme danger of missteps with magic and the difficulty of analyzing the magic has stymied magic, and left humanity at the mercy of the dangerous elves, until a wizard summons a computer programmer from a parallel world -- ours—to apply the skills he learned here to magic. At other times, a parallel development of magic does occur. This is commonest in alternate history genre. Patricia Wrede's Regency fantasies include a Royal Society of Wizards, and a technological level equivalent to the actual Regency; Randall Garrett's Lord Darcy series, Robert A. Heinlein's Magic, Incorporated, and Poul Anderson's Operation Chaos all depicted modern societies with magic equivalent to twentieth-century technology. In Harry Potter, the wizards have magic equivalent or superior to Muggle technology; sometimes they duplicate it, as in the train that brings students to Hogwarts. In the Dungeons & Dragons campaign setting Eberron, masses of relatively weak wizards mass-produce spells and magical items for public consumption. The power ascribed to wizards often affects their role in society. In practical terms, their powers may give them authority in the social structure; wizards may advise kings, such as Gandalf in The Lord of the Rings, or Belgarath and Polgara the Sorceress in David Eddings's The Belgariad, or even be rulers themselves as in E.R. Eddison's The Worm Ouroboros where both the heroes and the villains, although kings and lords, supplement their physical power with magical knowledge, or Jonathan Stroud's Bartimaeus Trilogy, where magicians are the governing class.[23] On the other hand, magicians often live like hermits, isolated in their towers and often in the wilderness, bringing no change to society. In some works, such as many of Barbara Hambly's, wizards are despised and outcast specially because of their knowledge and powers.[44] In the magic-noir world of the Dresden Files, although wizards generally keep a low profile, there is no specific prohibition against interacting openly with non-magical humanity. The protagonist of the series, Harry Dresden, openly advertises in the Yellow Pages under the heading "Wizard", as well as maintaining a business office. His main source of income in the series is derived from acting as a "special consultant" to the Chicago Police Department in cases involving the supernatural. Dresden primarily uses his magic to make a living finding lost items and people, performing exorcisms, and providing protection against the supernatural to ordinary humanity.

A magician is a practitioner of magic, the ability to attain objectives or acquire knowledge using supernatural or nonrational means.[1] Some modern magicians, such as Aleister Crowley and those who follow the traditions of the Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn and Ordo Templi Orientis, describe magic in rational terms, using definitions, postulates and theorems.[2] Aleister Crowley said "the magician of the future will use mathematical formulas".[3] The latter kind of magician can also be referred to as an enchanter, wizard, mage, magus, or thaumaturgist. These overlapping terms may be distinguished by some traditions or some writers. When such distinctions are made, sorcerers are more often practitioners of evocations or black magic,[citation needed] and there may be variations on level and type of power associated with each name. Some names, distinctions, or aspects may have more of a negative connotation than others, depending on the setting and the context. (See also Magic and Magic and religion, for some examples.) Contents [hide] * 1 Historical figures * 2 Magicians * 3 See also * 4 References * 5 External links [edit] Historical figures "Alchemist Sędziwój" by Jan Matejko: alchemist, and pioneer chemist See also: alchemy, shaman, warlock, and witch Many illusionists attempting parlor tricks and sleight of hand receive the title of magician whether it be by label or self description through the many years. A wizard, in this case, is a person who claims to be aptly skilled in arts considered hidden or arcane. Throughout history, there have been many who have claimed having secret knowledge was result of great often supernatural powers, insofar as certain platitudes alluding to an ability and knowledge of the occult (literally, "hidden") techniques oft felt could be of great import. Perhaps the oldest example of this is knowledge of the jealously guarded secret of the making and tending of fire.[4][5] In particular the practice of Alchemy contains many elements that in the modern are now considered magical, awhile other sciences unknown by practitioners of the past have been incorporated into the study and application of chemistry. Legends in medieval Europe attributed Virgil with prophetic powers, and sometimes more magical abilities, as in the fairy tale "Virgilius the Sorcerer" collected in The Violet Fairy Book. The figure of Faust appears to have been based on an actual alchemist, Johann Georg Faust, who was accused in his lifetime of practicing magic. Merlin a magician of Arthurian Legend is among many others of the multitudes of paganism gods made legend after the fact or in pure fiction. Jehoshua Ben-Pandira - An Egyptian wizard suggested by scholar Gerald Massey to be the original Jesus. The "Atsinganoi", early Romani people as described in the time of Constantine IX,[6] Heinrich Cornelius Agrippa occult writer and alchemist, John Dee, Queen Elizabeth's court astrologist, Alessandro Cagliostro and Aleister Crowley are examples. In contemporary religious beliefs, it is believed by those adherent to the Ascended Master Teachings that Ascended masters such as the Master St. Germain have magical powers, as well as many occult groups and societies. Written in fiction on occasion the possibility of magic being a part of evolution is oft posed. See also Indirectly, Esoteric Christianity, Kabbalah, Renaissance magic, Mysticism, Merlin, and Grimoire.

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A snow cone is a paper cone filled with crushed ice topped with flavored sugar syrup. Due to the popularity of snowballs, many snow cones are now made bearing similarities to these balls of crushed snow. Contents [hide] * 1 Similar confections * 2 Flavors * 3 Gallery * 4 See also * 5 References [edit] Similar confections In Cuba and many Cuban neighborhoods, they are known as "granizados," after the Spanish word granizo for hailstones. In Miami neighborhoods, they are often sold in conjunction with other frozen confections in ice cream trucks and stands throughout the city. A classic Cuban flavoring for granizados is anise, made from extracts of the star anise spice. Child enjoying a "Piragua" in Puerto Rico In Puerto Rico and many Puerto Rican neighborhoods, they are named "Piragua", because they are made in pyramid shapes and agua means water in Spanish. Most Puerto Rican snow cone vendors use street snow cone carts instead of fixed stands or kiosks. During the summer months in Puerto Rican neighborhoods, especially in New York and Philadelphia, "piragua" carts are often found on the streets and attract many customers. In Mexico, California, Texas and the Southwestern United States, a finely shaved and syruped ice is called a raspa, or respado.[1] Raspar is Spanish for "scrape"; hence raspado means "scraped", referring to the ice. Raspados come in a wide range of fruit flavors and classic Mexican flavors, such as leche (sweetened milk with cinnamon), picosito (lemon and chili powder), chamoy (fruits and chili sauce), cucumber, guanabana, guava, pistachio, tamarind, among others. Kakig�ri snow cone with green tea (matcha) flavor. In the Dominican Republic and many Dominican neighborhoods, snow cones are called "frío frío". "Frío" is the Spanish for "cold". Snow cones are sometimes confused with "Italian ices" or "water ices", but some water ice lovers distinguish between the two: snow cones are generally flavored after production, at the point of sale, whereas water ices are flavored as the ice is made. In Costa Rica they are called "granizados" or "copos"; and when they have ice cream on the top, they are called "churchills". In El Salvador and other countries of the Region, they are known as "Minutas" In Peru they are known as "cremolada" and in some parts of the country as "raspadilla". In Venezuela they are called Cepillados and are topped with condensed milk. In Colombia and Panama they are called "Raspados" or "Raspaos" and are also topped with condensed milk and fruit flavors. In Guyana they are known as Crush Ice or Snow Cone and are topped with condensed milk. In Guatemala they are called Granizada and are topped with condensed milk and fruit. In Chile is called "mermelada con hielo" (ice jam), is a local curiosity that is widely consumed in Rancagua, in central Chile, rather than leading juice flavoring was jam In South Asia, snow cones are enjoyed as a low-cost summer treat, often shaved by hand and served on a stick or a cup. In Pakistan it is often referred to as 'Gola ganda' (Urdu: گولا گنڈا) and in India as 'Chuski'. Chuski is flavored with sugar syrups with fruit flavors and several other indigenous flavors like rose, khus, kala-khatta. It is often topped with condensed milk. In Gujarati it is called "baraf no golo". In Israel they are known as 'Barad', which is Hebrew for hail (ברד), following the Spanish Granizado. Sold throughout the hot summer on kiosks, and independent stands installed on the streets and the beaches, they come in multiple fruit flavors. [edit] Flavors Popular snow cone flavors include tsunami, a lime flavor; Cherry Coke, which typically does not contain Coca-Cola or other soda products; Mardi Gras King Cake; and Caribbean, a popular lemon-lime topping. However, popular flavors depend on location and supply. [edit] Gallery Children with shave ice treat. Syrups used for Hawaiian shave ice. Snow cone vending truck in Arizona. [edit] See also * Snowball - Ice shaved from a block that is fluffy, not granular * Shave ice or Hawaiian shave ice - A finely shaved flavored ice dessert * Sno Biz - Brand name shave ice * Italian ice - Water ice * Snow cream - A cream or snow and dairy based dessert * Slush (beverage) - A shaved ice drink * Slurpee / Slush Puppie - Brand name slushes * slushy - used for slang * No Snowcones - A theatre production company.

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Magia (del latín magia, derivado a su vez del griego μαγεία, de igual significado que en español, probablemente del antiguo persa magush, que contiene la raíz magh-: "ser capaz", "tener poder"; haciendo referencia a la antigua casta sacerdotal persa)[1] [2] es el arte con el que, mediante conocimientos y prácticas se pretende producir resultados contrarios a las leyes naturales conocidas valiéndose de ciertos actos o palabras, o bien con la intervención de seres fantásticos. Contenido [ocultar] * 1 Generalidades * 2 Historia * 3 La magia en la Antropología Simbólica o 3.1 La magia según Frazer o 3.2 El paso de la magia a la religión * 4 Sistemas de magia * 5 Brujeria o 5.1 Animismo o 5.2 Chamanismo o 5.3 Candomblé o 5.4 Vudú o 5.5 Umbanda o 5.6 Quimbanda o 5.7 Wicca * 6 Magia clásica, Teosofía y Nuevas magias contemporaneas o 6.1 Magia sexual o 6.2 Thelema o 6.3 Samael Aun Weor o 6.4 Ordo Templi Orientis o 6.5 Magia luciférica o 6.6 Magia enoquiana o 6.7 Magia musical * 7 Bibliografía * 8 Referencias * 9 Bibliografía complementaria * 10 Véase también [editar] Generalidades Bandera vudú. La magia, es el acto o representación explícita por la cual el individuo cree demostrar su reconocimiento de la existencia de una o varias deidades o fuerzas que tienen poder sobre su destino, a quienes obedece, sirve y honra. Básicamente, la praxis mágica consiste en la transacción entre el ser humano y estas potencias para torcerlas a su favor. La magia sería una forma de pensar que permea el pensamiento y a veces la vida del individuo, desde simplemente elegir un color determinado a una vocación. Desde un punto de vista más amplio, magia designa las creencias metafísicas, cuyo elemento central y diferenciador es la capacidad humana de modificar la realidad sin medios estrictamente causales. La magia en general es también designada a menudo como brujería. Muchos inventos modernos son magia para las sociedades primitivas, y suplen las capacidades buscadas por los antiguos magos. El pensamiento mágico origen de la magia, consiste en ciertas creencias de lógica indemostrable. Suele estar basado en percepciones psíquicas subjetivas del individuo/colectivo, pudiendo haber sido condicionado por otras personas que haya conocido o aceptando de algún modo las teorías de dichos individuos con esas creencias. En psiquiatría, varias enfermedades mentales y trastornos de personalidad se caracterizan por diversos grados de pensamiento mágico. Estudios sobre el pensamiento mágico: * Ocultismo, es el estudio de las doctrinas ocultas de las diversas religiones y filosofías, haciendo hincapié en los fenómenos paranormales y los poderes ocultos del ser humano. * Esoterismo, es el estudio y la práctica de tradiciones esotéricas, es decir, vinculadas a corrientes religiosas y filosóficas importantes, pero (al menos en origen) desconocidas o secretas para el gran público. * Pseudociencia (‘falsa ciencia’; del griego pseudo: ‘falso’ y scientia: ‘conocimiento’) es un término que da cuenta de un conjunto de supuestos conocimientos, metodologías, prácticas o creencias no científicas pero que reclaman dicho carácter. Este concepto es utilizado por los enfoques epistemológicos preocupados por el criterio de demarcación de la ciencia y tiene mayor consenso entre las ciencias exactas y naturales. * Superstición es la creencia, no fundamentada, o asentada de forma irracional en el hombre, de que diversas acciones voluntarias como: rezos, ensalmos, conjuros, hechizos, maldiciones u otros rituales), o involuntarias: como la caída de sal al suelo o la llegada de un martes 13), pueden alterar el destino o la suerte de una persona. Se incluyen entre las supersticiones la adivinación y sus distintas disciplinas astrología, quiromancia, cartomancia o tarot, geomancia o feng-shui, espiritismo etc. Sin embargo, hay que resaltar que la actual utilización de palabras (del lenguaje) para lograr cambios en una persona, en ocasiones incluso sin que lo sepa, es la base de muchas psicoterapias, incluyendo el psicoanálisis. Asimismo, la utilización de técnicas como la sugestión, la hipnosis y la programación neurolingüística PNL, e incluso los placebos, son herramientas de cambio conductual que en la antigüedad pudieron ser atribuidos a encantamientos, hechizos, brujería, magia, o milagros en caso de religión. También hay que mencionar los conocidos efectos de las profecías autocumplidas en las que una afirmación respecto al futuro, en forma de profecía, desencadena una serie de sucesos que terminan ocasionando lo que se había predicho. La diferencia de todas estas técnicas con la magia, es la ausencia de atribución de poderes a entidades espirituales o metafísicas. Por otro lado, la palabra mágico también es utilizada para referirse a fenómenos que no tienen una explicación racional. Lo inexplicable puede ser «mágico». A veces para referirse a sentimientos como el amor, la felicidad, cuando hay algo que no se puede definir «hay magia». [editar] Historia El término magia deriva de magi, uno de los elementos religiosos incorporados por los magos en la antigua Babilonia. Hubo magos en Roma, en Grecia y en casi todo el mundo occidental y oriental de la Antigüedad, cuando la magia o hechicería populares estaban relacionadas con antiguos ritos de fertilidad e iniciación en el conocimiento en los pueblos llamados bárbaros, principalmente los chinos. La magia y la hechicería estaban ligadas también a las creencias de pueblos orientales muy antiguos, en los que el mago o brujo era a la vez un sanador y un conocedor del mundo invisible de los espíritus y desempeñaba un papel preponderante en la comunidad. En Grecia y Roma los adivinos y magos no tenían ya nada que ver con los chamanes, aunque eran consultados sobre todo por los poderes de adivinación de los que se creía estaban dotados. En la Europa medieval la magia estuvo relacionada con la alquimia y la astrología, actividades ocultas consideradas demoníacas por la Iglesia Católica, y que fueron objeto de persecución especialmente durante la Baja Edad Media y la Era Moderna. Unas 500.000 personas resultaron procesadas y gran parte ejecutadas por tribunales civiles y religiosos, acusadas de brujería, a lo largo de casi cinco siglos. Hubo procesos por brujería hasta el siglo XIX, tanto en Europa como en Norteamérica. En Europa el Tribunal de la Inquisición desarrolló un papel preponderante en estos hechos. Debe señalarse que ninguna de las grandes religiones acepta la magia, tampoco otras creencias cristianas. En lo que respecta a las religiones judeocristianas en particular, ya se encuentran referencias negativas a los magos en el Antiguo y Nuevo Testamento. La antropología distingue hoy día entre magia y religión, y coloca a la magia en un plano paralelo al de la evolución de las religiones. La interrelación de los mitos antiguos de las más diversas culturas, sus similitudes y relación con las religiones animistas, en las que la magia desempeñaba un papel central, fueron estudiadas por el antropólogo británico James George Frazer en su obra monumental La rama dorada. Merecieron también una amplia consideración por parte del psiquiatra Carl Jung, quien desarrolló la teoría del inconsciente colectivo. El hermetismo (llamado la antigua ciencia en el medievo) influyó en el pensamiento del Renacimiento. Esta pseudociencia se vincula, en algunos aspectos, con el mantenimiento de antiguas creencias que, como la magia, conducían al conocimiento y manejo de las leyes espirituales del universo. En 1463, Cosme de Médici encargó la traducción de la obra de Hermes Trimegisto, que se suponía escrita en el antiguo Egipto pero que, para muchos, data de los primeros siglos de la era cristiana y que es la piedra angular del movimiento hermético o gnóstico (de gnosis, conocimiento). La adivinación mediante el tarot fue una actividad frecuente en el nacimiento de la Era Moderna y los sistemas de símbolos desarrollados por los cartománticos para el conocimiento de la realidad presente y futura son claramente deudores de otros métodos de adivinación practicados por los magos, entre ellos la lectura del vuelo de las aves y de las entrañas de los animales sacrificados. Prácticas de simple hechicería, adivinación, astrología, lectura de barajas y de libros oraculares como el antiquísimo I Ching, de los chinos, o el alfabeto rúnico de los escandinavos, aspectos del hinduismo, el yoga y hasta la creencia en la divinidad de civilizaciones extraterrestes y su presencia entre los humanos constituyeron desde mediados del siglo XX un conglomerado débilmente articulado que se conoció como movimiento de la Nueva Era (en inglés New Age). La magia ha sido muy perseguida en la Historia (por corrientes religiosas o sociales) y, aún hoy, contrastando sus teorías por medio del método científico; aunque en otro tiempos hubiera significado la muerte para el mago. [editar] La magia en la Antropología Simbólica [editar] La magia según Frazer Chamán de la tribu urarina, 1988. Según Frazer, el pensamiento en el que se fundamenta el concepto de la magia consiste en un conjunto de prácticas y creencias a los que individuos de una sociedad recurren, para crear un beneficio o conseguir un fin, relacionándolas a su vez con cierto orden en la naturaleza, ya sea como grupo, cuando una limitante natural afecta severamente en la organización social del mismo (una sequía o la infertilidad)(hechicería), o a nivel individual, cuando se requiere, por ejemplo, deshacerse de un enemigo que amenaza la vida (tabú). Los evolucionistas distinguieron notablemente las profesiones públicas bajo las que se constituía una u otra sociedad; * La función del mago desempeñó en muchas sociedades un papel fundamental en la toma de decisiones importantes. * Los consejos de mayores, distinguiéndose en general la tendencia a los consejos de mayores, quienes representaban la cabeza de gobierno de las sociedades «salvajes». Representó un punto medular en los estudios que trataron de comprender la organización de sociedades no occidentales que contrastaban con las occidentales. Se puede dividir en dos vertientes de análisis, por los procesos mentales, según los principios abstractos en los que se basa la práctica de la magia, bajo una ley denominada de empatía. Es por esta razón que en está línea de pensamiento la magia es predecesor a la religión en una escala evolutiva, es decir, que la magia corresponde a un estadio de grado de evolución de ciertas sociedades consideradas salvajes y la religión a otras que se suponen con mayor grado de civilización. He ahí el interés de su estudio, que trató de comprender el punto en que la magia deja de ser tal para convertirse en religión y así marcar un avance social hacia otro estadio evolutivo. Frazer entiende a la magia como la expresión de reglas que determinan la consecución de acontecimientos en todo el mundo, como magia teórica; y considerada como una serie de reglas que los humanos cumplirán con objeto de conseguir sus fines, como magia práctica. Esta se divide en dos tipos, cada uno de ellos se funda bajo los principios de semejanza y contacto: * Magia imitativa. Relacionada a que lo semejante produce lo semejante. Esto se refiere a los efectos provocados a algo o a alguien semejaran a las causas que lo provocaron, se puede abarcar desde quien usa la magia, quien la práctica, hasta con que fines. * Magia contaminante. Que se alude a las cosas que una vez estuvieron en contacto se actúan recíprocamente a distancia uniéndolos por siempre un lazo, después de haber sido separados, también presente en la Homeopatía. Para llegar a un entendimiento es necesario recurrir a ejemplos que puedan figurar dentro de estos esquemas. En La Rama Dorada de Frazer, en todo momento refiere ejemplos de sociedades exóticas, por así llamarles, que hasta cierto punto parecen estar intactas ante el mundo occidental, aunque lo cierto es que estás sociedades se encontraban ya teniendo contacto con el hombre occidental, quien se hallaba colonizando sus territorios. Es de relevancia mencionar la consecuencia colonial del mestizaje, que no sólo es de manera racial, como se abordaría en el punto de vista biológico, sino que ante todo responde al intercambio socio-cultural. A manera de ejemplo podemos tomar a la llamada santería que, a rasgos generales, es considerada como un conjunto de elementos que componen al catolicismo y a las tradiciones yorubas que importaron los esclavos negros capturados en Nigeria y trasladados a Cuba. Esta conjugación de sistemas religiosos sigue siendo practicada hasta nuestros días en diversas partes de Latinoamérica, y no sólo es regida por la devoción a los santos identificados con los orishas, sino que implica una jerarquía sacerdotal. Un ejemplo claro de la magia contaminante es cuando para la iniciación de un sacerdote, le es entregada cierta cantidad de collares durante el rito, que le permitirán representar a cierta cantidad de orishas y estar en contacto con ellos a través del sacrificio de cabras u otro animal. Estas creencias y prácticas también implican que la resolución de ciertos problemas, como devolver la salud a alguien que lo solicitó, se deben a que se invocó al espíritu de sus ancestros y se llevó la ofrenda al orishá indicado. Esto es magia imitativa e implica creencias animistas. [editar] El paso de la magia a la religión Frazer considera que los principios de asociación de ideas aplicados de manera errónea producen la magia, a la que incluso considera como «hermana bastarda de la ciencia».[cita requerida] Frazer considera que el primer golpe que transformó a la humanidad para desistir de la magia como regla de fe y práctica, fue al reconocer «su impotencia para manejar a placer ciertas fuerzas naturales que hasta entonces se habían supuesto dentro de su mandato».[cita requerida] Dentro de esta concepción es posible entender que la inteligencia de los hombres comenzaba a percibir que la práctica de la magia no producía precisamente los resultados esperados, que con anterioridad significaban una realidad. A esto le continuó un largo período de un pensamiento reflexivo que hizo la transición hacia la religión de manera gradual, por el mayor conocimiento de las fuerzas con un poder superior al del hombre y el desarrollo del conocimiento. Frazer concluye que el paso definitivo de la magia a la religión se da en «la confesión de la entera y absoluta dependencia del hombre con respecto a lo divino»,[cita requerida] culmina con la sumisión del hombre ante la inmensidad del universo. Actualmente, no obstante, se considera impracticable el establecimiento de una frontera enfática entre magia y religión, mucho menos bajo una premisa evolucionista unilineal como la planteada por Frazer. Es el caso de la cultura mesopotámica, donde religión y magia coexisten dentro del corpus social hasta el punto de ser indiscernibles. [editar] Sistemas de magia Artículo principal: Brujería La antropología distingue la hechicería tradicional de las primeras sociedades. De ella han derivado muchos sincretismos: * Brujería. Corresponde al brujo, que se consideraba vinculado con la magia negra. * Brujería diabólica: influenciada por el cristianismo, es aquélla en la que se rinde culto al Diablo. [editar] Brujeria Es la forma más simple de magia practicada en las sociedades antiguas. Se basa en la manipulación de la materia y en la analogía. El hechicero recurre a pociones, fetiches, animales y diferentes objetos para lograr sus fines. En su viejo origen la palabra farmacia, del griego pharmakía, se refería a la preparación de pociones y venenos. Luego pasó al uso actual de auxiliar de la medicina, de pharmakon, medicamento. [editar] Animismo Artículo principal: Animismo El Animismo engloba diversas creencias en las que seres personalizados sobrenaturales (o espíritus) habitan objetos animados e inanimados. Si bien dentro de esta concepción caben múltiples variantes del fenómeno. Chamán en un baile de conjuro. [editar] Chamanismo Artículo principal: Chamanismo El Chamanismo se refiere a una clase de creencias y prácticas tradicionales similares al animismo que aseguran la capacidad de diagnosticar y de curar el sufrimiento del ser humano y, en algunas sociedades, la capacidad de causarlo. Sistema que dio origen a diversos cultos y religiones y cuyo origen remonta a la edad de Piedra. El chamán es una especie de curandero, con poderes mágicos especiales. [editar] Candomblé Artículo principal: Candomblé Sistema semejante al Vudú es popular en Brasil. Consiste en la invocación de ciertas deidades llamadas Orixás. [editar] Vudú Artículo principal: Vudú Sistema popular en Haití. Semejante al Candomblé. [editar] Umbanda Artículo principal: Umbanda Fusión de las religiones afro-brasileñas, especialmente el Candomblé, con el espiritismo kardecista, con predominancia de este último. Difiere del Candomblé, también, por considerar varios tipos de orixás como espíritus de personas muertas. [editar] Quimbanda Artículo principal: Quimbanda Sistema de magia que trata de la invocación de entidades llamadas Exus, pudiéndose con la ayuda de esas entidades, hacer tanto el bien como el mal. [editar] Wicca Artículo principal: Wicca Es una religión neopagana aparecida como un 'renacimiento' de la antigua religión de la brujería e iniciada por Gerald Gardner. La misma ha sido reformada por muchos practicantes y covens no tradicionalistas que no se sienten cómodos con las primeras enseñanzas de Gardner. Un eclecticismo, en la cual la mayoría de sus practicantes utilizan la magia cuidadosamente en auxilio de la evolución humana. Muchos wiccanos acuden primeramente al uso de oráculos para consultar si es conveniente realizar magia en cierta situación. La magia en la Wicca se define como el arte de enviar conciencia a voluntad, en ocasiones respaldando estos pensamientos o está fe con objetos o hierbas que representen la intención del Mago Wicca. [editar] Magia clásica, Teosofía y Nuevas magias contemporaneas La magia contemporánea encuentra sus raíces en el trabajo de iniciados como Eliphas Levi y Papus. La Teosofía, o la moderna Teosofía, tiene como uno de sus fundadores Helena Petrovna Blavatsky, que fue a buscar a oriente la fuente de su sistema filosófico. Este sistema no se presenta exactamente como los sistemas utilizados por los estudiosos de magia ,es mas, pretende transmitir el conocimiento esotérico universal que estaría contenido en todas las tradiciones filosóficas o religiosas. Blavatsky considera, por ejemplo, que todos los hombres son magos en el sentido último de la palabra, pues todos pueden utilizar el poder creador divino, sea a través del pensamiento, la palabra o la acción. [editar] Magia sexual Se agrupan en este tópico diversos sistemas: Thelemita, gnóstico, etc., que debe ser ciertamente diferenciado del Tantra con el cual guarda algunos puntos de relación. La base de estos sistemas es el concepto de que el sexo es sagrado. La magia sexual se divide en diversos sistemas diferentes y con divergencias, algunos de ellos derivados del sistema originalmente desarrollado por Paschal Beverly Randolph y después por Theodor Reuss en la Ordo Templi Orientis (O.T.O.) y por Aleister Crowley, por el Sr. Kenneth Grant y por el artista Austin Osman Spare. Citamos entre los diversos sistemas de magia sexual: * Ansariético: Creado por los Ansarichs o Aluítas (en inglés: Ansaireth o ainda Nusairis) en la Siria antigua * Eulis: Creado por Pascal Beverly Randolph, un iniciado entre los Aluítas * Sistema de la 0. T. 0.: Sistema de magia sexual que guarda alguna relación con algunas ramas de Tantra Oriental*Sistema da Fraternitas Saturni: derivado de O.T.O. * Sistema Maatiano: Creado por disidentes de O.T.O. * Sistema da 0. T. O. A.: Derivado de O.T.O., hace uso de prácticas astrales de magia sexual * Caos: Sistema mágico que incluye la «magia auto-sexual» * Movimento Gnóstico Cristiano Universal: Sistema de magia sexual acentuadamente ascético fundado por el neo-gnóstico Samael Aun Weor * TAO: Iglesia Tao Cristiana Universal Movimiento S.O.S de rescate interoseanico: Creado por Kelium Zeus y su hijo Samel Joab Bathor Weor. * T.O.T.O. Corriente Thelémica Tifoniana desarrollada por el Sr. Grant. * Zos Kia Cultus. Sistema de Hechicería inventado por A.O.S. * La Couleuvre Noire. Culto de Vodoun moderno que utiliza la magick sexual junto con la corriente ofidiana dirigido por Michael Bertiaux. * Sexo Dhármico: Meditación Holo-orgásmica y Eco-Tantra. Corriente contemporánea desarrollada por el autor y ocultista Yhao Hani. [editar] Thelema Artículo principal: Thelema Filosofía, Culto o Religión, dependiendo del punto de vista, creado por Aleister Crowley a partir del Liber AL vel Legis (el libro de la ley). Con la recepción de ese libro se inició una nueva era, Eón de Horus, donde el ser humano se percibe como centro de su propio universo. Thelema, en griego, significa voluntad. [editar] Samael Aun Weor Artículo principal: Samael Aun Weor El colombiano Víctor Manuel Gómez R. (Samael Aun Weor), fundador del Movimento Gnóstico Cristiano Universal, tomando la magia sexual como uno de los pilares fundamentales de lo que llamó «revolución de la conciencia». Su principal característica es lo que el propio autor llama de «ascética revolucionaria de la Era de Acuario». De acuerdo con el autor, metafísicamente, su proceso consiste en «mezcla inteligente del ansia sexual con el entusiasmo espiritual», esta consiste, en suma, en la conexión de los órganos genitales masculinos y femeninos llamados por los términos ioni y lingam (en idioma sánscrito), evitándose el orgasmo, tanto masculino como femenino, la pérdida del semen y transmutando, mediante procesos indicados en sus libros, el semen en energia, luz y conciencia. [editar] Ordo Templi Orientis La Ordo Templi Orientis, fundada por Theodor Reuss y Karl Kellner al principio del siglo XX se basó inicialmente en la aplicación del tantra sexual con una estructura que recuerda a la masonería. Cuando el ocultista inglés Aleister Crowley, fue admitido en esta Orden, sus rituales y filosofía básica fueron reformulados para ser interpretados y trabajados bajo la llamada ley de thelema. La O. T. O. acabó siendo el origen de diversas disidencias que adoptaron diferentes perspectivas sobre la magia. De entre las disidencias que realizan una labor considerada seria podemos citar a la Ordo Templi Orientis Antiqua (O. T. O. A.) y a la Ordo Templi Orientis Tifoniana (Typhonyan O. T. O. o TOTO). [editar] Magia luciférica Sistema de Fraternitas Saturni. Es un sistema parecido al de OTO, centralizando sus prácticas en la magia sexual (en especial en las prácticas del «sendero de la izquierda») y en la magia ritualística. La diferencia principal en relación a la O.T.O. es que, en tanto esta busca la fusión individualizada con la energía creadora, como idea central, la Fraternitas Saturni busca elevar el espíritu humano a una condición de divinidad, representada por Lucifer. El sistema posee 33 grados. [editar] Magia enoquiana La magia enoquiana es un sistema simbólicamente complejo, que consiste en la evocación de ángeles enokianos, descubierto por el astrólogo John Dee y por su vidente, Edward Kelley. El sistema fue posteriormente estudiado por la Aurora Dorada Golden Dawn y por Aleister Crowley. [editar] Magia musical Creado por una renombrada ocultista, Juanita Wescott, estudiosa del sistema de Franz Bardon. El sistema de la magia musical hace uso del hermetismo y de la cábala. [editar] Bibliografía * Caro Baroja, Julio (1997). Las brujas y su mundo. Madrid: Alianza Editorial. ISBN 84-206-1012-7. * Frazer, James George (2006). La rama dorada. México: Fondo de Cultura Económica. ISBN 978-968-16-0122-5. * Lisón Tolosana, Carmelo (1992). Las brujas en la historia de España. Madrid, Temas de Hoy. ISBN 84-7880-219-3. * Luck, Georg (1995). Magia y Ciencias Ocultas en el Mundo Griego y Romano. Madrid: Editorial Gredos. ISBN 978-84-249-1785-2. * Tausiet, María (2007). Abracadabra Omnipotens: magia urbana en Zaragoza en la Edad Moderna. Madrid, Siglo XXI. ISBN 978-84-323-1286-1. * VV.AA. (1987). Textos de Magia en Papiros Griegos. Introducción, traducción y notas de José Luis Calvo Martínez y María Dolores Sánchez Romero. Madrid: Editorial Gredos. ISBN 978-84-249-1235-2. * VV. AA. (1999). Textos Herméticos. Introducción, traducción y notas de Xavier Renau Nebot. Madrid: Editorial Gredos. ISBN 978-84-249-2246-7. * Wittgenstein, Ludwig (2001 (2ª edición)). Observaciones a "La Rama Dorada" de Frazer. Madrid: Editorial Tecnos. ISBN 978-84-309-2158-4

salserin Return to the top

Salserín, es una orquesta infantil juvenil de salsa, formada en Venezuela en 1993. La orquesta adoptó una técnica de renovación de cantantes parecido al del grupo Menudo, al fijar un límite de edad para la permanencia de sus integrantes. Es así como la orquesta ha tenido cerca de 20 vocalistas diferentes, entre los que se destacan Servando y Florentino, entre otros. La orquesta cuenta con más de 5.000.000 copias de sus placas vendidas en todo el mundo, así como también 11 producciones, 6 Novelas, 1 película de cine, 1 radio novela y más de 50 discos de oro y platino.[1] Contenido [ocultar] * 1 Miembros o 1.1 Músicos o 1.2 Vocalistas * 2 Historia * 3 Discografía * 4 Otros proyectos o 4.1 Televisión o 4.2 Películas * 5 Referencias * 6 Enlaces externos [editar] Miembros La orquesta Salserín cuenta entre sus integrantes tanto a los músicos como a los vocalistas. Estos últimos han sido los que más cambios han tenido a través de la historia de la agrupación, ya que el concepto de "juvenil" de la misma obliga a renovar a sus vocalistas una vez estos dejan de verse lo suficientemente jóvenes para permanecer en ella. [editar] Músicos Período 1993- 2001 * Franco Lemus (Maracas, Güiro) * Ernesto Narvaez (Conga, Mini Congas, Bongo) * Egiber Guerra (Mini Congas, Maracas) * Anderson Quintero (Timbal) * Yorman Méndez (Timbal) * Hungría Rojas (Bongó) * Johan Vilera (Congas) * César Mijares¹ (1° Trombón, Director Musical) * Rodolfo González (2° Trombón) * Carlos Arraiz (Saxo) * Luis Ruiz (1° Trompeta, Sub-Director) * Daniel Ruiz (2°Trompeta) * Jeanpierre Rojas (3° Trompeta) * Carolina Rey (4° Trompeta) * Rubén Paiva (Bajo) * Roberto Mora (Piano, Sintetizador) * Robert Alvarado (Piano, Sintetizador) [editar] Vocalistas 1º Generación * Servando Moriche Primera Musset (*Baruta, 27 de agosto de 1980).(1993-1997) * Florentino Primera Musset (*Caracas, 31 de agosto de 1981).(1993-1997) * José Félix Ceballos Ibarra (*El Tigre, 14 de noviembre de 1982). * Erasmo Enrique Huerta Torres "Tonito" (*Maracaibo, 15 de abril de 1987).(1992-1995) * Leonardo Fabio Restrepo Patiño (*Caracas, 2 de octubre de 1984). * Anthony D. Oropeza "Toñito" (*Caracas, 15 de septiembre de 1992).(1996-2001) 2º Generación * Mario Alfredo Donoso Córdova"Renny" (*Caracas, 3 de diciembre de 1981).(1997-1998) * René Dario Jesús Velazco Villasmil "René" (*Puerto Cabello, 11 de agosto de 1981).(1997-1998) * José Félix Ceballos Ibarra (*El Tigre, 14 de noviembre de 1982). * Leonardo Fabio Restrepo Patiño (*Caracas, 2 de octubre de 1984). * Anthony D. Oropeza "Toñito" (*Caracas, 15 de septiembre de 1992).(1996-2001) (2010 - presente ) 3º Generación * José Félix Ceballos Ibarra (*El Tigre, 14 de noviembre de 1982). * Leonardo Fabio Restrepo Patiño (*Caracas, 2 de octubre de 1984). * Juan Pablo Oquendo Rosales "Alex" (*San Cristóbal, 14 de marzo de 1986). * Anthony D. Oropeza "Toñito" (*Caracas, 15 de septiembre de 1992).(1996-2001) * Omar Rafael Acedo Sánchez "Willy" (*Maracaibo, 21 de febrero de 1984). * Jorge Luis Alva Orue "Joao" (*28 de junio de 1984). * Gustavo Andrés Herrera Itriago "Johnny" (*Caracas, 22 de diciembre de 1983). 4º Generación * �ngel Reinaldo Lares Tovar (*Valencia, 25 de junio de 1987).(2006-2007) * Leonel Eduardo Ojeda Kobacs (*Valencia, 17 de agosto de 1988).(2006-2010) * Leonardo Javier Corredor Duque (*Arkansas, 27 de febrero de 1989).(2006-2007) * Juan Francisco Ojeda Kobacs (*Valencia, 24 de noviembre de 1994).(2006-presente) * Jean Marco Ramírez Rojas (*Maracay, 11 de agosto de 1989).(2007-2009) 5º Generación * Leonel Eduardo Ojeda Kobacs (*Valencia, 17 de agosto de 1988).(2006-2010) * Jean Marco Ramírez Rojas (*Maracay, 11 de agosto de 1989).(2007-2009) * Juan Francisco Ojeda Kobacs (*Valencia, 24 de noviembre de 1994).(2006-presente) * Jonathan Miguel Moly Calero (*Caracas, 13 de julio de 1993).(2008-presente) * Ryan Renna Peraza (*Caracas, 27 de abril de 2006).(2008-2010) 6º Generación * Juan Francisco Ojeda Kobacs (*Valencia, 24 de noviembre de 1994).(2006-presente) * Jonathan Miguel Moly Calero (*Caracas, 13 de julio de 1993).(2008-presente) * Anthony D. Oropeza (*Caracas, 15 de septiembre de 1992).(2010-presente) [editar] Historia Salserín, se fundó en Venezuela por su director Manuel Guerra en 1993, con la idea de formar una agrupación infantil de salsa. Son contratados por Sony Music ese año, y graban su primera placa "La Orquesta Infantil del Mundo"; en éste disco comenzó a sonar con fuerza el tema "El Bebé Salsero" (tema compuesto por Manuel Guerra) y "Bella Ladrona" (compuesto por Servando Primera). Estas grabaciones se convierten en los primeros éxitos de la agrupación en el mercado venezolano y traspasa las fronteras, llegando a sonar en los países Centroamericanos y en Europa. En 1996, cuando graban su segunda placa Con Mucho Swing, del cual sale el himno de la agrupación "De Sol a Sol" (canción compuesta por Manuel Guerra), gracias al cual consolidó su fama en toda Venezuela y en veinte países más.[2] Ese mismo año lanzan su primera telenovela, llamada "De Sol a Sol", llegando a un público juvenil de 2 a 20 años de edad, en los países de Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador y Perú. Llamó mucho la atención de la prensa éste fenómeno ya que en la década de los ochenta e inicios de los noventa, sucedían estos hechos con la agrupación Menudo y New Kids on the Block. Logran vender aproximadamente 320.000 copias en su país. Llamando la atención de su sello disquero, el cual anunció entonces su internacionalización definitiva, causando el mismo furor en Perú, Ecuador, Colombia, Mongolia, Italia, Indonesia, entre otros países. Lograron reunir a más de 100.000 personas a sus conciertos (200 cada siete meses), siendo la canción "De Sol a Sol" una de las más sintonizadas en aquellos tiempos. Es así como graban su primera Película, junto a destacadas estrellas venezolanas, llamada "La Primera Vez", convirtiéndose inmediatamente en la proyección cinematográfica más vista en Guatemala. A inicios de 1997 se retiran de la orquesta los hermanos Servando y Florentino Primera, para lanzarse como solistas. Mediante casting ingresan ese año René Velazco y Mario Donoso "Renny", permaneciendo en la agrupación hasta mediados de 1998. En el año 1997 firman con Venevisión y graban su segunda telenovela "Entre Tú y Yo", y a la vez editaron su tercera placa con el mismo nombre. La serie se transmitió en más de 45 países incluyendo en Japón y Corea. El primer sencillo promocional de esta producción, homónimo del disco, fue compuesto por Vladimir Pérez. Debido a su acogida y numeración de conciertos, la orquesta es escogida para formar parte de las celebraciones por los 50 años, en la ciudad de Orlando, de Walt Disney. Su éxito los llevó a realizar actuaciones dobles y a congregar a más de 60.000 personas en un mismo concierto en diversos países de América y de Europa. El disco "Entre Tu y Yo", logró la suma de 900.000 copias a nivel mundial. En 1998, siguiendo los pasos de los Hermanos Primera, se retiran René y Renny de la agrupación para formar un dueto. Un nuevo casting hace llegar dos nuevos integrantes: Omar Acedo "Willy" y Juan Pablo Oquendo "Alex". Luego de un tiempo se realizó otro casting en el programa Atrevete a soñar del canal venezolano RCTV , en el que otro nuevo integrante fue elegido, Jhonny Herrera, para pertenecer a esta agrupación, permaneciendo allí hasta finales del 2001. En 1999 lanzan su cuarta placa "Con Nuevo Swing" y estrenan su tercera novela "¿Dónde está el Amor?, la misma que se vende a 35 países alcanzando el mismo éxito de sus anteriores series. En el 2001 realizan su quinta y última producción de esa generación, "Impregnado de Ti", logrando los mismo niveles de éxito e incursionando el mercado portugués. Ese año la mayoría de los integrantes alcanzaron una edad casi juvenil y obligaron a disolver la agrupación. Cada integrante y cantante continuaron con diversas actividades. En el 2005, Manuel Guerra transfiere los derechos de la agrupación a los Hermanos Remil y Romil Renna, quienes fueron los antiguos managers de la orquesta, quienes a final de ese año deciden sacar un nuevo disco, el sexto de la orquesta, y el primero de la nueva generación, titulado "Dum-Dum", del cual es lanzado el tema que lleva el encabezado de la placa, logrando después de 4 años, adueñarse del mercado por más de veinte semanas en las carteleras venezolanas. Es así que graban su primera radionovela en el 2006, y ya se empieza a escuchar en Honduras, Bolivia, Colombia, Ecuador ,Perú, y otros países latinoamericanos. "Niña Amada" rompe recors de sintonía en Venezuela lo que hace que a principio de 2007 graben su cuarta novela del mismo nombre. El éxito de esta nueva serie logra que sea vendida en más de 40 paises y hace que realicen una continuación "Mi Niña Amada: Mi Otra Mitad del Sol". Su tema "Niña Amada" crea un fenómeno en Venezuela similar al que una vez creó "De Sol a Sol", con ella giran alrededor de 20 países. En 2008 entran dos nuevos integrantes: Jonathan Moly, de 14 años, y Ryan Renna Peraza, de 1 año y seis meses de edad, que se convierte en el bebe salsero más joven de la historia de Salserín. Sacan un disco de colección titulado "10" en el cual graban los mejores éxitos del vallenato en Reggaeton. Casi de inmediato, graban su décimo primera producción discografica, "Robando Corazones", y su sexta novela del mismo nombre, teniendo gran exito en Venezuela. Su tema "Te Voy a Robar El Corazón" debuta en el puesto 2 de las listas de popularidad y dura 16 semanas en el primer lugar de los tops de ese país. Este éxito hace que su video rote constantemente en canales internacionales como HTV y Ritmoson latino. La cancion Te voy a robar el corazon junto a Niña Amada se convierten en los himnos musicales de esta nueva generacion en toda America Latina. En "2010" "Leonel Ojeda" se despide de la agrupacion junto al Bebe Salsero mas joven de la Historia "Ryan Cox", en un concierto ante 25.000 personas en Lima Peru, leonel deja a Salserin por ya cumplir la edad reglamentaria mientras que Ryan es contratado para animar un programa infantil por una televisora de Cable importante a nivel mundial con solo 3 años de edad, y permanecio en la agrupacion solo 2 años. [editar] Discografía Año de publicación Título Discográfica 1993 La Orquesta Infantil del Mundo Columbia Records 1996 Con Mucho Swing Sony Music 1997 Salserín en vivo Sony Music 1997 Entre Tu y Yo Sony Music 1998 Remix Hits Feauturing: Servando & Florentino Sony Music 1999 Con Nuevo Swing Sony Music 2001 Impregnado de Tí Guerra Sound Records 2005 Y Sus Grandes Éxitos Sony Music 2006 Dum-Dum Sony Music 2008 De Colección N°10 Sony Music 2009 Robando Corazones Planet Records/Sony Music [editar] Otros proyectos [editar] Televisión * 1996 - De sol a sol (Serie, Venevisión) * 1997 - Yo sin ti (Serie, Venevisión) * 1997 - Entre tú y yo (Serie, Venevisión) * 1999 - Dónde está el amor (Serie, RCTV) * 2005 - Niña amada (Radionovela, Fiesta 106.3 FM) * 2007 - Mi niña amada (Serie, Venevisión) * 2007 - Mi niña amada, mi otra mitad del sol (Serie, Venevisión) * 2008 - Robando Corazones (Serie, Venevisión) [editar] Películas * La Primera Vez (1996) [editar] Referencias 1. ↑ Biografía de Salserín en su página web, enlace 2. ↑ Historia ([1]) [editar] Enlaces externos * Web oficial * Canal oficial de YouTube

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